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crops and animals, using the vast potential available in ge­netic resources' collections of both widely used and under­utilized species (crops as well as wild relatives). Among other options AKST could contribute and help (Plants for the Future, 2005; FABRE, 2006):
•     Develop innovative breeding methodologies based on sexual reproduction to integrate present genetic and ge­nome knowledge (marker-assisted selection, new math­ematical models and software for genetic evaluation and selection—taking into account new data on gene regulation,  imprinting,   silencing,  genome   dynamics, whole genome sequencing, etc.); and
•     Develop technologies that can lead to "breakthrough innovations" through genetic engineering (for example to move needed genes and pathways from species where they exist to species where they are needed, tissue spe­cific promoters with genes or RNAi to turn on or off genes that are needed only in specific tissues), cloned animals and other methods that do not include sexual reproduction.

It is important that the development of such innovations does not negatively affect other desirable traits or basic physiology of crops/animals and is not harmful either for the environment or for human health and that it benefits many people around the world, namely through their con­tribution to the achievement of development and sustain-ability goals (Box 6-8 and 6-9).
     Animal welfare has an important high priority place in the agenda for the future. Most livestock production (pigs, poultry, dairy cattle, beef cattle) will probably be in large-scale production systems. AKST may be mobilized to ensure that minimum standards for the protection of farm animals are set and respected (Box 6-7).
     More generally, the wide development and dissemina­tion of innovations has to be anticipated and assessed to understand how it might or might not contribute to devel­opment and sustainability goals, considering all dimensions of sustainability and integrating appropriate spatial and temporal scales. New AKST developments could accom­pany this new form of innovation process through:
•     a change in the evaluation process, that could move to­wards a more systems and dynamic approach and take into account all the potential impacts (both positive and negative) of the innovation (ACRE, 2006): (1) from en­vironmental, health, social, ethical and economic point of views, (2) both short and long term, (3) at the per­tinent spatial scale. The evaluation of these impacts before and after implementation through appropriate means is important. AKST research could contribute to the developments of methods and tools that could help in the renewal of this evaluation at the different steps of innovation process; and
•     a renewal of policy design (associated with systems evaluation process), which call for a priori evaluation as well as follow-up designs and a posteriori analysis.

6.2.7.2  The potential of nanotechnologies in the food and fiber supply chains
Nanoscience involves the study of the characteristics and manipulation of materials at the scale of atoms and mol-

 

Box 6-9. Animal biotechnology developments and development and sustainability goals

There is considerable potential associated with the use of ani­mal biotechnology.
•   Future research on  animal cell  differentiation  may open the way to the production of gametes from stem cells. Coupled with predictive biology and statistical techniques such as genome-wide selection, these ap­proaches could make it possible to produce and select multiple generations in the petri dish;
•   The use of nuclear transfer ("cloned") animals for breeding could allow the rapid and wide dissemination of important genes contributing to the realization of de­velopment and sustainability goals;
•   Genetic modification could be powerful, particularly when considering its potential to immunize animals against specific viral diseases. For example, RNA in­terference technology could be used to make chickens resistant to avian influenza and reduce the risk of a hu­man flu pandemic; and
•   There are many foreseen applications in the medical field: animal models, animals as bioreactors, and ani­mals for xenotransplantation.

Although genetic technology is often claimed to be precise in targeting specific genes, possible broader effects may not be easy to predict and unintended consequences need to be better anticipated and assessed (Straughan, 1999). A number of other concerns have been expressed and debated (Rollins, 1995) including (1) the speed with which animal biotechnology can effect changes in animals, (2) the possibility that intensive use of biotechnology might narrow the gene pool and reduce genetic diversity through the wide use of specific transgenes and intensive cloning of elite animals, (3) that the accidental or deliberate release of genetically engineered animals might be akin to the introduction of alien species, which has been known sometimes to cause serious ecological harm.
As is the case for plant genetic engineering (see box 8), animal biotechnology is not a single technology package and its potential to contribute to development and sustainabil­ity goals requires detailed analysis on a case-by-case basis weighing possible costs against possible benefits whether environmental, sanitary, social or economic. Trying to decide in any area what level of risk-taking is ethically justifiable is an important societal decision, even if it is rather difficult to as­sess; with animal biotechnology, however, the issue becomes even more complex and controversial, because the costs and benefits will be experienced by two different groups with dif­ferent interests—human beings and animals.

FABRE, 2006; Rollin, 1995.