ecules   (RS&RAE,   2004;   BSI,   2006).   Nanotechnology involves the "design, characterization, production and ap­plication of structures, devices and systems by controlling shape and size at the nanometer scale" (RS&RAE, 2004). At extremely small dimensions, materials exhibit different properties and behaviors, for example possessing greater strength or tolerance, or reacting differently to physical or chemical stimulation. Nanotechnology is already incorpo­rated into commercial products such as pharmaceuticals, chemicals, transport and energy products, packaging, coat­ing and lubrication and electronic products. Nanotechnol­ogy is also used for environmental sensing and remediation (Zang, 2003; Kuzma and Verhage, 2006).
Nanotechnology is potentially applicable at all stages of the food and fiber supply chain (Joseph and Morrison, 2006; Kuzma and Verhage, 2006). On farm nanotechnolo-gies have potential to:
•     improve crop fertilization and protection by improving the precision of application and enabling activation of chemicals at agronomically and environmentally appro­priate times;
•     identify   and   immediately  treat   crop   and   livestock pathogens and signal contamination of food products by microorganisms;
•     apply additives such as minerals in crop treatments that can be recovered on harvest; and
•     enhance   operational   properties   of  farm   machinery through reduced mass, improved coatings and reduced maintenance.

Nanotechnologies using "smart devices" can help detect en­vironmental damage and target remediation, such as water pollution and clean up. With respect to food processing and marketing, nanotechnologies have potential to enhance the nutrient and dietary properties of foods, improve packag­ing, detect contaminants in foods including toxic substances and extend product life.
     There are, however, actual and perceived risks associ­ated with nanotechnologies and their application in farming and food (RS&RAE, 2004; DEFRA, 2005a), with respect to occupational health (Aitken et al., 2004; Health and Safety Executive, 2004), public health (Warheit, 2004; SCENIHR, 2005) and environmental risk (Colvin, 2003; Guzman et al., 2006). For example in 2004, the Royal Society calls for a precautionary approach until the uncertainties associated with "potential toxicity and persistence can be ascertained". In this context public agencies could develop proactive ap­proaches  to  nanotechnology  management  by  reviewing potential benefits and risks, understanding and informing public perceptions of risks and benefits and prioritizing the farming and food as a pioneer sector for the beneficial use of nanotechnology (Kuzma and Verhage, 2006). For oth­ers such as Friends of the Earth and the UK Soil Associa­tion, the risks of "nanofoods" to human and environmental health outweigh benefits especially compared to organic options.
     Although most investments in nanotechnology are com­mercially driven, there are important social, environmental and ethical implications that justify government participa­tion in nanotechnology research as well as management. Furthermore, the development of nanotechnology in NAE

has potential to influence its use in other regions of the world.
     In the context of the use of nanotechnology in farming and food and related environmental management, capacity could be developed in:
•     Ensuring that public investments in nanotechnology are aimed at meeting critical societal needs;
•     Supporting fundamental studies in nanoscience to im­prove the understanding of nanoparticle interactions with biological materials and organisms;
•     Maintaining   a   registry   of  nanotechnology   applica­tions, linked to product and process information and "labeling";
•     Applying appropriate methods for testing, risk assess­ment and monitoring of impacts, including epidemio-logical, occupational and environmental aspects;
•     Educating the public and consumers on the benefits and risks of nanotechnology, including product informa­tion, to enable informed choice;
•     Developing suitable regulatory frameworks for new nanotechnology applications, including specifications and commodity and trade descriptions, working with existing standards agencies;
•     Promoting beneficial development and use of nanotech­nology in the public interest through scientific research and joint government-industry partnerships; and
•     Building international partnerships to promote appro­priate nanotechnologies to meet the needs of developing countries (Salamanca-Butello et al., 2005).

6.2.7.3   Contribution ofAKST to the development of improved pest management
New technologies and production practices have been de­veloped to reduce the environmentally detrimental effects of pest management in agricultural production. Many of these methods will require further research to improve both their productivity and environmental performance. Such research will continue to contribute to innovation in the develop­ment of technologies and practices. Broadly speaking, the new approaches fall under the term ecologically-based pest management (EBPM) as based on a working knowledge of the agroecosystem, including natural processes that sup­press or reduce pest populations (National Academy of Sci­ences Board, 2000).
     Management techniques reflecting such an ecologically-based approach can include Integrated Pest Management (IPM), conservation biological control integrated plant nu­trient systems (IPNS), no-till (or minimum tillage) conser­vation agriculture, precision, spatial variable farming and livestock breeding and feeding and housing regimes that reduce environmental load (Elliot and Dent, 1995). Signifi­cant uncertainties and controversies remain to be resolved by future research regarding the nature and efficacy of many of these techniques and their many variants (NRC, 2001; Ehler et al., 2005).
     As elaborated in the cited sources above, AKST can contribute to the further development and dissemination of such practices by:
•     Investment in pest ecology, including insect, weed and pathogen ecology, to allow maximum biodiversity with minimum impact on productivity and crop health;