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organizations in small-scale fisheries and aquaculture, and knowledge support for policy makers and planners. Many challenges remain, including the need for postharvest technologies, value chain and product development, regulations and standards for international trade, provision of information and training to potential farmers, provision of credit to farmers, the availability of fishmeal and fish oil for cultivation of the fish and knowledge of how to mitigate the likely environmental impact of semi-intensive aquaculture.

Integrated farming systems have the advantage of being relatively efficient at converting feeds into fish and typically have lower negative environmental impacts. Aquaculture can have a potentially negative impact, particularly if wildcaught fish are used as feed, if coastal resources such as mangroves are converted to fisheries, or if excessive chemical inputs are used—intensive aquaculture requires the use of compound feeds, pesticides, and antibiotics the spillage of which into natural aquatic systems can negatively affect the ecosystems. Potential negative effects can be reduced through the use of integrated farming systems that avoid using human foodstuffs as an input to aquaculture, strengthening capacity for impact monitoring, and taking lessons from countries such as Thailand that have experienced considerable negative effects from intensive aquaculture. Effort can also be directed towards farming high valued fish such as tilapia, catfish and milkfish which have relatively low fishmeal and fish oil content ratios. However, there is some evidence that substituting vegetable protein for fishmeal may result in higher mortality rates and low rates of growth in several aquatic species and so further research is needed into this area (Delgado et al., 2003). Extensive aquaculture, which relies on natural stocking and feeding of the species, or intensive aquaculture that uses advanced technology to recycle water and other waste can also reduce negative environmental effects.

5.9 Health and Nutrition
Agriculture and health are closely linked in sub-Saharan Africa. Malnutrition is increasingly becoming an urban problem and so the focus must be on both rural and urban areas. More specific options to target micronutrient deficiency includes increasing research into the nutritional value of local and traditional foods, particularly fruits and vegetables, the extent to which they contribute to diets, and the conditions under which farmers would cultivate and market these traditional food sources. Other options, particularly relevant to the urban population, include product development to increase the variety and quality of foods, including fortified foods, as well as targeted information campaigns to increase awareness and encourage the adoption of more nutritious foods. The empowerment and increased involvement of women can help to emphasize the development, adoption, and demand for more nutritious foods, such as orange-flesh sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), rich in starch, dietary fiber, vitamin A, vitamin C, and vitamin B6. Given the contribution of agriculture to health and nutrition, a strategy of integrated planning and programming among ministries of health, agriculture, livestock, and fisheries would provide opportunities for joint funding of and better synergies among programs.

 

        Nutritional deficiencies are widespread in SSA. Deficiencies of major food molecules, vitamins and minerals lead to such diseases as PEM (protein energy malnutrition); kwashiorkor (deficiency of protein energy intake); pellagra (niacin deficiency); and scurvy (vitamin C deficiency). Yet agricultural policies in SSA continue to emphasize primary agricultural production to the exclusion of micronutrient rich products. Fruits (of which consumption is lower in SSA than all other regions), vegetables, local and traditional foods are generally rich in micronutrients and other dietary requirements. There are a number of approaches to promoting nutritious diet, e.g., research into the nutrient value of local and traditional foods, breeding crops that supplement micronutrients, and ensuring that individuals have access to dietary information on available foods.

Traditional food sources are diverse in SSA. What is lacking is adequate research on the nutritional values of these foods and the extent to which they contribute to diets. Many communities eat plant sources that serve multiple purposes: e.g., as food and as medicine. Moringa stenopetala, for example, is a deciduous plant whose cooked leaves are widely used in some western and eastern parts of Africa whereas the roots and leaves of the plant are used for medicine (Mekonnen and Gessesse, 1998). Infectious diseases deplete the human body of minerals and vitamins and the leaves of Moringa contain calcium and iron. Information on the nutritional value of traditionally consumed food items will help to promote and popularize their use.

The empowerment of women in agricultural development strategies has been shown to shift the emphasis towards the development and adoption of more nutritious crops such as orange-flesh sweet potato (Hawkes and Ruel, 2006). Establishing the needed infrastructure for research on the health value of foods is one strategy to address the problem of nutrition deficiencies. This requires the concerted effort of governments through NARS, health institutes and other related organizations within the continent.

Biofortification is an innovative approach that links agricultural and nutritional scientists together to breed crops with higher levels of micronutrients. Examples of research being undertaken in SSA include the Africa Biotechnology Sorghum Project, which is attempting to develop a “super sorghum” that is resilient to harsh climates, contains more essential nutrients and is easier to digest when cooked (www.supersorghum.org). However, this approach is controversial. In part this controversy is due to general concerns in SSA over biotechnology, including its impact on health and the environment. Others feel that available funds could be better spent developing existing highly nutritious crops and improving general access to calories.

Individuals can be encouraged to consume a variety of foods with needed nutrients and micronutrients through the development of programs that encourage awareness and develop the habit of choosing foods for nutritional value. Awareness of better nutrition and health can be addressed through developing a farm radio network and disseminating radio scripts in local languages. The scripts are used as teaching and development tools by agriculture extension staff, teachers and community workers. The information in the scripts helps people to understand the conditions that