private forest land owners with management. The limited applicability of European management models to the US context, especially in the area of forest fires, provided im­petus for forestry research (Williams, 2000). The US and Canada collaborate over research on forest health, sustain-ability and soils (Lal et al., 1997; O'Neill et al., 2005; Pow­ers et al., 2005)
     Europe has a large number of institutions that under­pin the development of forestry as an industry and a social resource (UNECE, 2001). There are at least 150 forest re­search organizations and learned societies in Europe rang­ing from industry-sponsored research facilities, to academic departments (and entire "Forestry Universities" in the CEE countries) and state-funded research institutions. These in­clude at least 30 state forest services in Europe, some of them also responsible for wider land use issues such as agri­culture, biodiversity conservation and water resources. They are often powerful and influential organizations, with sub­stantial funding, human and capital resources. Besides the training available through the organizations above, forestry is included in the general higher educational curriculum of many NAE countries and there are dedicated training estab­lishments for forestry and wood-based processing.
     Throughout NAE forestry NGOs promote sustainable use of forests and campaign for better protection of natural forests. They include forest product consumers who question the ways in which their countries' forests are being managed and exploited. Consumer organizations are increasingly in­volved in lobbying for more sustainable forestry, both within and outside NAE. This has led to the establishment and ex­pansion of certification schemes throughout NAE, which al­though controversial, are aimed at assuring consumers that the forests from which their products are derived from are forests managed according to a published set of manage­ment rules and objectives.
     Although many NAE forestry societies, state forest ser­vices and research organizations were established over 100 years ago, these institutions have developed rapidly over the past 50 years, largely driven by the post-war need to increase timber and paper supplies to an expanding and increasingly wealthy public. They hold considerable political power and continue to be a key influence on the success of the forestry industry (World Bank, 2005).

2.6.6 Drivers of changes in forestry
Markets have always played an important part in forestry production, driven by demand for structural timber for rebuilding NAE infrastructure needed after World War II, meeting demand for increased timber and paper pulp due to an increasing population and demand for fuel wood that is now increasing after a decline from 1950 to 1980. There has been a steady increase in global demand for wood-based boards used in construction and fitments and this is expected to continue in the 21st century.
     State ownership and subsidies have also played an im­portant role in the development of NAE forestry science and technology, especially the increased use of modern soil prep­aration, planting and harvesting technologies and process­ing equipment, and has enabled the increases in forest output seen in the past fifty years. Rules and regulations have become increasingly important as drivers of forest management and

protection, especially enabled by conservation legislation driven by EU Directives and North American statutes.
     In NA, the main drivers of change in forestry have been the decreased demand for conversion of forestland to agri­culture; increased demand and market pressures in North America and globally for wood and wood products; in­creased emphasis on non-timber products of forests, e.g., wildlife, range, water, outdoor recreation; and the increased recognition of the role of forests in climate change and pro­tecting biodiversity.

European Forests and Livelihoods
Within the EU-15 area, some 2.7 million people are em­ployed in forestry and forest-based industries such as wood­working, the cork industry, pulp and paper manufacture and board production. The industry produces an annual value of at least EUR 335 billion (UNECE/FAO, 2003a; http:// europa.eu/). The EU is one of the world's largest traders and consumers of forest products, with a net income in this sector. The EU also imports large quantities of forest prod­ucts, primarily roundwood from the Russian Federation and wood pulp from the Americas, where higher growth and lower production costs make forest products from this region very competitive. The EU excels in the production of high value wood products such as boards, cork and special­ist papers and is a key exporter in this sector. (Bowyer and Rametsteiner, 2004; http://europa.eu/).
     At least 12 million people own forest holdings within the EU-15, mostly small scale owners with an average hold­ing of 13 ha, with most owning around 3 ha, contrasting with the average area of 1,000 ha for public holdings. Private owners occupy around 65% of Europe's forested land. Since enlargement of the EU large areas of previously state-owned forest holdings have been restored to private ownership. There is an increasing trend for private own­ers to supplement their incomes from urban-based incomes, with less dependence on income from forestry (http://europa .eu/).
     European forests are also economically and socially important because, besides providing the wood for indus­try, they also provide services such as leisure use (tourism, general recreation and hunting) and provide casual income for rural people from collecting valuable products such as fungi, berries and nuts. In Europe forests give many com­munities and individuals a strong sense of identity that is deeply ingrained in culture and societal values in many parts of Europe (e.g., rights to fuelwood, hunting and the collec­tion of forest foods).

2.6.7 Trends in NAE forestry
NAE is the only world region where forest cover is increas­ing. Throughout NAE there been a steady increase in both deciduous and coniferous plantations since early in the 20th century. Timber productivity has increased since 1945 to meet increased demand, but NAE continues to import large quantities of wood, including hardwoods from tropical for­ests. This has been partly responsible for reductions in cover and quality of forests in other world regions.
     Since 1945 there has been a shift from private to state forest ownership in the US. This trend was also apparent in Europe, but here ownership is increasingly being privatized.