ecologic scientists and others in a dialogue between model building, parameterization and further refinement of models (Daszak et al., 2004);
- Integrating various disciplines (evolutionary, social, anthropologic, geographic, economic and public health sciences) could help in understanding the determinants of new and emerging diseases (Daszak et al., 2004; Desenclos and de Valk, 2005).
Building surveillance and response networks
Early detection allowing a rapid response to emerging infectious diseases is essential (WHO, 1998). However, this depends upon the application of the latest diagnostic tools along with developing newer tools and appropriate, predictive epidemiological analysis (Thompson, 2000). Technological advances that require interaction between government, policy advisers and scientists could be applied as part of surveillance strategies (Hughes, 2001).
Some of the options that could strengthen the ability of veterinary and human quarantine systems to cope with the growing threats and build comprehensive, strategic and effective surveillance are to:
• Set up observatories at appropriate scales to collect data over long periods as they could help understand the temporal and spatial dimensions of the epidemiology of the different diseases;
• Develop diagnostic tests and systems that are reliable when the disease is rare; and
• Develop new methods of disinfection to avoid propagation: assess new methods for sterilization of food and reduce contamination of water.
Other innovations that may prove essential are developing new types of cures through newer forms of drug discovery and also through immunizations using nanotechnology or biotechnology to quickly vaccinate livestock and wildlife to cure the disease and thus to lower the chances or delay the disease jumping to humans.
Building and strengthening coordination between veterinary and public health KST infrastructure and training
The coordination between veterinary and public health infrastructure is the underlying foundation that supports the planning, delivery and evaluation of public health activities and practices (Salman, 2004). Three of the main areas that could be developed to help build efficient infrastructure are listed below:
• Enhance epidemiologic and laboratory capacity: the "new" tools of molecular epidemiology could be rapidly deployed to counteract the potentially devastating effects of emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases. In particular, accurate and sensitive DNA-based diagnostics and mathematical models can be used to provide optimum surveillance and the ability to predict the occurrence and consequences of disease outbreaks so that the necessary "preparedness to respond" is available and control strategies can be established (Thompson, 2000). This would play an important role to better understand the advances in investigations of outbreaks, |
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assessment of vaccine efficacy and monitoring of disease trends;
• Provide training opportunities in infectious disease epidemiology and diagnosis in the NAE region and throughout the world with the goal to train laboratory scientists to become leaders in public health laboratories, especially at the state and local levels (Hatch and Imam, 1996); and
• Increase funding given that, in the future, the development of prediction and prevention programs to eradicate or minimize these emerging infectious diseases at a global level may require more global resources accompanied by a greater involvement of international nongovernmental development and aid organizations. It is vital that a coordinated global civil society rather than an exclusively governmental approach be implemented in the prevention of these diseases (Harrus and Baneth, 2005).
6.2.2.2 Insect pests, weeds and diseases of plants
Similar to new and emerging human and livestock diseases, there has been an upsurge of new insect pests, weeds and pathogens of plants in the past few decades. Recent examples with important economical or social consequences include epidemics of sudden oak death disease caused by Phytophthora ramorum (Rizzo et al., 2005); new genotypes of potato late blight in the US (Fry and Goodwin, 1997); the appearance of Phylloxera, a root-feeding aphid, on grapevines in Europe; and increased parasitic weeds, especially in Europe. In each case, society and/or agricultural practices were severely affected.
Currently, weeds are the major biotic constraint on crop production and the farmers' major variable inputs are for weed control. In NAE nearly 70% of pesticide applications are of herbicides for weed control (over 50% worldwide) and much tillage is to control weeds. The success of chemical control of weeds has led to a weakening of AKST in dealing with weeds, both in the public sector in dealing with ecological and physiological relations between weeds and crops and the whole ecosystem and the private sector has come up with only one new target site for herbicides in the past two decades. The result has been deleterious changes in weed spectra in ecologically preferable minimum tillage systems that reduce erosion and chemical run-off to harder to control perennial weeds.
Farmers are troubled in trying to balance the demands of multifunctionality and weed biodiversity with the needs of productivity and supplying the demands of food fiber and fuels, as the weeds that supply food to wildlife in the field are often secondary hosts of disease and insect pests as well as direct competitors with crops for resources. Weed control is the major constraint to organic agriculture, where considerable soil degrading tillage and backbreaking manual labor is required to deal with weed problems and the ensuing ethical dilemmas. Despite the present and future problems posed by weeds, both public and private sector AKST in weeds is disproportionately low compared to the AKST investment in dealing with other biotic stresses.
As far as pests are concerned, although fewer studies exist compared to their counterparts affecting humans |