competitiveness for resource-poor farmers. Yet access to knowledge, technology and resources requires participation in AKST processes through equal dialogue, among the various beneficiaries, with their specific value systems, perspectives and skills. This requires a shift from technology transfer approaches to interactive social learning networks. Such a shift is easier to introduce in the more local than global agricultural innovation systems. A word of caution: equity in the daily environment can hide the consequences of global disparities. Global equity requires effective global communication networks based on modern technologies and inter-regional global regulatory frameworks. Meeting D&S goals more broadly will require the integration of varied perspectives of ecological, social and economic sus-tainability, different parts of the food and non-food chains, and various stakeholders. More emphasis on policies allows for effective internalization of externalities also in terms of D&S goals, while less regulation requires more emphasis on education, information and standards and tends to lead to lower market equity. Regionally and locally oriented AKST systems enhance transparency and direct feedback from consumers, (citizens and communities), as well as from local ecosystems to the production entities and thus complement regulatory and information systems.
5.6 Future AKST Systems and Their Potential Contributions to Sustainable Development Goals
5.6.1 Four normative agricultural innovation systems
Despite ongoing trends, there are many uncertainties about the futures of indirect and direct drivers of AKST systems in North America and Europe. Sketching four normative futures shows that there is no one best future because the future is a realm of freedom, power and will (de Jouvenel, 2004) and depends on the strength of the actor(s). Not all options are compatible and coherent. Choices will have to be made. Reality will probably be a mix of options.
5.6.1.1 Market-led AKST
The S&T policies of North America, the European Union and Russia and the non-EU Eastern European countries converge and favor the private sector. Market-led AKST decreases hunger and poverty and improves nutrition and human health in NAE and at international levels. However, it contributes little to equity and sustainable economic development.
Multinational Corporations (MNCs) in association with a few universities and small innovative firms develop and fund most AKST. Elite research groups throughout North America and Europe form technology clusters with firms. Research is not location specific. It is done where human resources are the best. MNCs and a few universities control and sell most AKST. Important research investments are made to support two markets: functional food for the high revenue consumers and inexpensive safe food for the low revenue customers. International agricultural knowledge centers conduct most public research. The European Research Space is a great success. Centers of excellence at international level associate R&D public institutes and ma- |
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jor firms with the objective of developing new activities or markets through innovation.
Private companies benefit from strong intellectual property rights and the privatization of living organisms. Legislation makes it possible for universities, non-profit organizations and small businesses to keep ownership of intellectual property developed with the support of public funds. Common regulations and standards are designed to facilitate generation and distribution of knowledge. Tax incentives encourage companies to invest and to collaborate with each other and with universities. Large vertically integrated firms own farm enterprises and control access and distribution of inputs and capital.
As far as the generation of knowledge is concerned, production and problem-oriented multidisciplinary work is encouraged. Despite managerial discourses on sustainable development, AKST generated by MNCs does not prevent certain areas, such as marine ecosystems and biofuels, from being left out of research agendas. Therapeutic successes and widespread application of nanotechnologies lead progressively to a global conception of nature and life. The frontiers between the different worlds of human beings, animals and plants are fading.
5.6.1.2 Ecosystem-oriented AKST
In ecosystem-oriented AKST, there is no clear demarcation between university science and industrial science, between basic research, applied research and product development, or even between careers in the academic world and in industry. Ecosystem-oriented AKST can make a major contribution to at least three development and sustainability goals:
1. Environmental sustainability by the development of novel, knowledge-intensive and resource use-efficient technologies,
2. Sustainable economic development, by investing human and financial capital in the development of "green technologies", and
3. Enhanced livelihoods and equity by developing a broad range of technologies (both low and high cost) and by making these widely accessible so that also poor and small farmers can benefit from them.
Many subsidies and most trade barriers have been eliminated. Support payments reward farmers for the provision of services other than food. In the EU and North America, agricultural policies promote the multifunctional nature of agriculture and the improvement of natural resource quality through strict adherence to stricter environmental regulations. In Eastern European countries and Russia, governments and farmers' associations are conscious of the disasters created by excessive usage of agrochemicals combined with poor infrastructures. Drastic reforms are being implemented to improve environmental policies.
Laws facilitate the ownership of knowledge by all those who have contributed to this ecosystem-oriented AKST. Policies support increased scientific cooperation among NAE countries. Special emphasis is on strengthening cooperation within NAE, especially EU and North America with Eastern European countries and Russia. Innovation, public/private |