ciplinary review systems and publication channels. Transdis-ciplinarity and participation (see 4.4) towards governance by the relevant agrifood system actors (including those re­lating to rural livelihoods, environment and the poor) have been found to require some degree of reconsideration of employees' reward systems. The progressive move from the linear technology generation and transfer to farmers, to­wards knowledge networks crossing horizontal and vertical borders implies collective learning (societal learning) with repeated feedback loops, for co-innovation processes that can successfully meet the goals of the IAASTD in dynamic and complex environments.

Structures and funding of AKST in NAE
The degree in integration of education, research and exten­sion varied among the countries of North America, Western and Eastern Europe. The integrated model applied in the US was particularly successful, especially in contrast to the centralized approach applied in much of Eastern Europe in the past. Decentralized decision-making seems to foster di­versity, adaptation to local circumstances and innovation and is thus likely to help meeting development and sustain-ability goals.
     Private funding of AKST in NAE has increased since the Second World War, a change that influenced the type of agriculture-related research conducted as well as alloca­tion of public funding for research, training and extension. AKST has focused increasingly on value addition through industrial, high-technology input development and food processing. Health and food safety concerns and consum­ers' seeking of comfort and pleasure have been increasingly addressed within the industrial framework. Distributional issues have received less attention.
     Public funding in AKST-related research tended to stag­nate since the mid-1970s in many parts of NAE. In recent decades increasing recognition of environmental and social problems has gradually caused a shift in allocation of pub­lic funds towards reducing negative externalities. However, the move towards diverting more funding to universities at the expense of more applied AKST institutions further em­phasized the role of basic sciences and increased the gap between basic and applied research and between research and non-academic stakeholders (especially rural ones). This development emphasizes the need to develop integrative ap­proaches, to avoid decline of chances of NAE AKST to help meeting development and sustainability goals.
     Throughout much of NAE, competition and a short-term outlook were increasingly built into the public funding system for AKST on different levels, a change that continues to the present day. This change in approach was meant to ensure quality, transparency, efficiency and value for money for taxpayers. Although this approach has favored certain aspects of scientific performance and international collabo­ration and increased transparency, it has been suggested that at worst it also has resulted in extreme competitiveness, sub-optimal use of public resources (including increased bureau­cracy) and loss of scientific commitment to public goods and long term goals. These changes might hinder the evolution of partnership-based knowledge networks which would help with achieving development and sustainability goals addressed by the present assessment. Short-term contracts

also disadvantage time demanding integration and favor laboratory research at the expense of more field based ag­ricultural and sustainability oriented R&D. Therefore, also new forms of review practices and contract arrangements have been sought. In Europe, competitive grants and a merit system based on quantification of publications increasingly encouraged method based R&D at the expense of problem oriented agricultural R&D. The latter trend was supported by the rise of method orientation over problem oriented R&D encouraged by competitive grants and a merit system increasingly based on quantification of publication outputs. In the EU the 5th and 6th Framework Programs have in recent years sought to counteract these trends and promote more integrated R&D focused on public goods, although the focus of these programs was different from that of the IAASTD.

Interaction of NAE AKST with the rest of the world
Initially the contribution of NAE AKST to international research  was  implemented  through  technology  transfer with considerable success but over time the limits of this approach became apparent with some severe consequences for the achievements  of development and sustainability goals. New ways forward were found through development of integrated approaches but old structures and attitudes continued to cause friction. In recent years NAE AKST has increasingly focused on applications within the developed world at the expense of applications appropriate for poor rural developing countries.
     Financial resources of the world AKST have further concentrated spatially in NAE and in a few large transition economies. International R&D increasingly faced restric­tions set by donors for use of funds. Part of the expert com­munity claims that the international significance of NAE AKST in terms of meeting development and sustainability goals has declined in the latter half of the period. Others suggest that new technology developed by AKST in recent years has been very significant for developing countries al­though uptake has been uneven. World AKST has further concentrated spatially in NAE and in a few large developing countries. NAE AKST sciences have focused increasingly on basic sciences, high-tech approaches, industrial applications and consumer concerns and a higher proportion of food sys­tem relevant R&D has been funded by companies. Spillover of AKST from NAE to developing countries is thus declining. The introduction of regulatory policies such as intellectual property rights, biosafety protocols and trading regimes are seen by many as further endangering equity between NAE and the rest of the world. Conventions on access and benefit sharing have been, however, introduced to balance some of the perceived inequities. The dependence and adverse eco­logical impacts of NAE agriculture and food supply on areas outside NAE have also increased. These developments hin­der meeting development and sustainability goals.

Drivers of NAE AKST in relation to development and sustainability goals
In the period since the Second World War the main direct drivers of NAE AKST in relation to development and sus­tainability goals were new KST and shifts in paradigms and societal demand. As a consequence, there was evolu-