Major social, economic and political changes in agricultural and rural development have emerged in the last two decades through the involvement of new civil society actors.

Since the 1980s, civil society actors (NGO, farmer and rural organizations, etc.) have become increasingly active in national and international policy negotiations (Pesche, 2004). The emergence of new rural organizations and civil society intermediaries coincides with the trend towards decentralization (Mercoiret et al., 1997ab). More recently, federated regional civil society organizations have emerged (Touzard and Drapieri, 2003). In 2000, ROPPA (Réseau des organisations paysannes et des producteurs d'Afrique de l'Ouest) was created in West Africa, under the umbrella of UEMOA (Union Economique et Monétaire Ouest-Africaine). Similarly, in South America, Coprofam (Coordenadora de Organizaciones de Productores Familiares del Mercosur) was created at the time of the implementation of the Mercosur mechanisms, in order to defend family agriculture.

Farmer organizations representing a large number of poor agricultural producers have had great impact on rural livelihoods through the provision of services.

Farmer organizations have enlarged their activities from enhanced production to many other support functions, and not all are for profit (Bosc et al., 2002). The support includes coordination, political representation and defense of interests, literacy and other training, and cultivation methods for sustainability of production systems and social services. In some cases, these farmer organizations have taken direct responsibility for research and dissemination (as in the Coffee Producer Federation of Colombia).

Access to water resources has been improved by water user associations and organizations ensuring access to water rights through user-based, agency and market allocations.

Dissatisfaction with performance of government managed irrigation has led to the promotion of participatory irrigation management over the past twenty years. However, problems remain with efficiency of operations, maintenance, sustainability and financial capacity. The involvement of private sector investors and managers is gaining credibility as a way to enhance management skills, and relieve the government of fiscal and administrative burdens (World Bank, 2007a). Water User Association (WUA) schemes in several states in India (Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh) have improved access to water resources and increased production through increased irrigation. Likewise, in Mexico, Turkey and Nepal, transferring irrigation management to farmers has resulted in improved operation, better maintenance of infrastructure, reduced government expenditure, and increased production (World Bank, 1999). In many countries, this evolution has also raised new queschapter

tions regarding sustainability and social justice (Hammani et al., 2005; Richard-Ferroudji et al., 2006).

3.2.4.2 Markets, entrepreneurship, value addition and regulation

The outcomes and efficiency of market rules and organizations directly affect sustainability. Efficient trading involves (1) farmers acting within an active chain of agricultural production and marketing; (2) dynamic links to social, economic and environmental activities in the region; (3) development plans appropriate to heterogeneity of agriculture among countries; and (4) recognition of the differences in farming methods and cultural background. Many farmers have a good understanding of the nature of the demand in terms of its implications for varieties, timing, packaging and permitted chemicals. As a result of knowledge-based approaches, they progressively modify their production practices and their portfolio of products in response to changing patterns of demand. The implementation of new norms regarding the use of AKST modifies market rules and organizations and differentially affects rural livelihoods, depending on local conditions.

Both locally and internationally the food sector is processing a wider range of tropical products.

Many different products can be processed from a single crop, e.g., maize in Benin is processed into forty different products, in large part explaining the limited penetration of imported rice and wheat into Benin. The branding of products by area of origin is becoming an important marketing tool affecting the competitiveness of local products in the tropical food sector (Daviron and Ponte, 2005; van de Kop et al., 2006). Competitiveness in the international market involves the promotion of distinctive properties of tropical foodstuffs (e.g., color, flavor) in products such as roots and tubers.

In aquaculture, there is increased coordination of private sector-led production and processing chains.

Formal and informal links between small-scale producers and large processing companies are contributing to more efficient and competitive aquaculture (shrimp, Vietnamese catfish, African catfish and tilapia), resulting in better quality for consumers, and secured margins for producers (Kumaran et al., 2003; Li, 2003). Export certification schemes are further streamlining production, processing, distribution and retail chains (Ponte, 2006).

Seasonal fluctuation in fruit and vegetable supplies is a major problem in the marketing of perishable products.

Various approaches have been developed to reduce the impacts of seasonality. For example, market-based risk management instruments have been instituted, such as the promotion of the cold-storage, insurance against weather-