unrest (Sperling et al., 2004). The Program for Africa's Seed Systems (funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation) is promoting the distribution of improved crops varieties through private and public channels, including community seed systems.

Scaling up the adoption of new technologies requires new approaches to partnerships and information sharing.

Adoption and impact of new agricultural technologies have been negatively affected by overlooking the human/cultural issues, ignoring local knowledge systems, and reducing the solution of agricultural problems to merely technology (Feder et al., 1985). The factors affecting adoption of technological innovations are numerous and complex. The interaction of technologies with the economic, social, cultural and institutional context influences the scale of adoption (Feder et al., 1985). Factors shown to affect adoption include complementarity with existing systems and practices, the relative "profitability" and benefits of alternative technologies; and the incentives of the policy environment. Partnership networks and information sharing are needed for scaling up (Lilja et al., 2004); this is particularly important in non-seed based knowledge intensive technologies.

3.2.3.4 Learning and capacity strengthening

A key factor for widescale adoption of new AKST is the dissemination of information to the farmers by extension, farmer training and information management. Recent advances in ICT provide important new tools.

3.2.3.4.1 Extension and training

Education and training contribute to national economic wellbeing and growth.

Countries with higher levels of income generally have higher levels of education. Human capital, which includes both formal education and informal on-the-job training, is a major factor in explaining differences in productivity and income between countries (Hicks, 1987). Agricultural education plays a critical role in the transfer of technology and agricultural extension makes an important economic contribution to rural development (Evenson, 1997). Agricultural centers of excellence are yielding new technologies, and agricultural education is assisting with technology transfer activities by being part of interdisciplinary research programs. Informal mechanisms for information sharing, such as farmer-tofarmer models of agricultural development, are increasing in importance (Eveleens et al., 1996).

A better understanding of the complex dynamic interactions between society and nature is strengthening capacity for sustainable development.

Formal capacity development in developing countries goes beyond disciplinary expertise. It produces broad-based professionals that recognize the "systems" nature of innovation and change, and its relationships with society (Pretty, 2002; FAO, 2005c). This is needed because of the interlinking of sociological, cultural, agricultural and environmental issues and the differing and often conflicting land use needs and strategies of a multiplicity of stakeholders. Innovative methods and tools can effectively improve coordination, mediation and negotiation processes aimed at more decentralized and better integrated natural resources management (D'Aquino et al., 2003). The combined use of modeling and role-playing games helps professionals and stakeholders to understand the dynamics of these interactions (Antona et al., 2003).

Lack of appropriate education/extension and learning opportunities are a constraint to technology transfer, trade and marketing, and business development.

Many developing countries have large numbers of illiterate people. This is a constraint to economic and social development, as well as agriculture (Ludwig, 1999). Some important goals include the rehabilitation of university infrastructures, particularly information and communication facilities; organizational designs that link institutions of higher education to hospitals, communities, research stations, and the private sector; and curricula and pedagogy that encourage creativity, enquiry, entrepreneurship and experiential learning (Juma, 2006).

Gender imbalances in agricultural extension, education and research systems limit women's access to information, trainers and skills.

There is a severe gender imbalance in agricultural extension services (Swanson et al., 1990; FAO, 1995; FAO, 2004a). Women constitute only 12.3% of extension workers in Africa (UN, 1995). Sensitivity to gender issues and vulnerable populations (disabled, HIV/AIDS affected, youth etc.) can determine the success or failure of training/extension activities. The number of women seeking higher education in agriculture is increasing in some developing countries, although female enrolment rates remain considerably lower than males (FAO, 1995). More women are now employed in national agricultural institutions than in the 1980s, but men still comprise the overwhelming majority of those employed, especially occupying in managerial and decision making positions (FAO, 1995).

In Africa, expenditures related to agriculture and extension have been reduced in quantity and quality, thereby affecting productivity.