34 | IAASTD Global Report

mon culinary practices are all considered. The guidelines encourage the consumption of locally available foods and healthy traditional dishes and suggest an increase in food variety based on healthy alternatives (WHO, 1999). "Eat local" campaigns geared towards supporting local agriculture have engendered awareness of the benefits of fresh foods, as well as renewed social interactions, contributing to overall community health.

Food safety

Food-borne disease is estimated to affect 30% of the population in industrialized countries and to account for an estimated 2.1 million deaths in developing countries annually (Heymann, 2002). Globally, the proportion of the population at high risk of illness or death from food-borne pathogens is rising in many countries due to factors such as age, chronic diseases, immunosuppressive conditions and pregnancy. Well-publicized incidences of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), hoof-and-mouth disease, avian influenza and the mass culling resulting from these outbreaks have raised public concerns with regard to intensified food production, particularly of meat. The reemergence of bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis as well as the outbreaks of illness due to food-borne pathogens, such as salmonella, e. coli, and listeria, that may contaminate fruit, vegetables, poultry, beef or dairy products, have pointed to the need for strict food safety standards "from the farm to the fork", and raised awareness of the fact that the distances from the point of production to the point of consumption continue to grow. As the general public has become increasingly interested in the linkages between agricultural production systems and human health, the list of food-related health concerns has continued to grow. It includes uncertainty with regard to the effects of GMOs on human health, fear of pesticide residues on foodstuffs, recognition of the role that widespread use of antimicrobial agents have had in the emergence of infectious pathogens resistant to antibiotics, and concern with the impact of intensive, industrial-style poultry production on animal health and welfare. Such public concerns have all begun to affect food purchasing decisions in many countries (FAO, 2001a).

     Both industrialized and developing countries have made efforts to improve surveillance and investigative capabilities regarding food-borne disease outbreaks over the past two decades. The experience acquired so far, together with molecular biology techniques, ICT, as well as new risk assessment and mitigation methodologies have improved prospects for targeted interventions to control and prevent disease. Safety assurance systems, which provide complete traceability from food production units through to the ultimate consumer, are being put in place in many countries. Such upstream and downstream management systems augment food inspection systems, which have proven unable to cope with the rapidly expanding trade in food products.

Working conditions in agriculture

Much agricultural work is arduous by nature. It is physically demanding, involving long periods of standing, stooping, bending, and carrying out repetitive movements. Poor tool design, difficult terrain and exposure to heat, cold, wind and rain lead to fatigue and raise the risk of accidents. New

 

technology has brought about a reduction in the physical drudgery of much agricultural work, but has also introduced new risks, notably associated with the use of machinery and the intensive use of chemicals without appropriate information, safety training or protective equipment. The level of accidents and illness is high in some countries and the fatal accident rate in agriculture is twice the average for other industries. Worldwide, agriculture accounts for some 170,000 occupational deaths each year. Machinery and equipment, such as tractors and harvesters, account for the highest rates of injury and death (ILO, 2000).

     Exposure to pesticides and other agrochemicals constitutes one of the principal occupational hazards, with poisoning leading to illness or death. The WHO has estimated that between two and five million cases of pesticide poisoning occur each year and result in approximately 40,000 fatalities. Pesticide sales and use continue to rise around the world. In developing countries, the risks of serious accident is compounded by the use of toxic chemicals banned or restricted in other countries, unsafe application techniques, the absence or poor maintenance of equipment, lack of information available to the end-user on the precautions necessary for safe use and inadequate storage practices, and handling and disposal practices (ILO, 1999). The health risks associated with pesticides have spurred efforts to reduce or eliminate their use, for example, through the development of integrated pest management (IPM) and the increase in organic agriculture.

     Farmers, agricultural workers and their families live on the land. Their living and working conditions are interwoven, raising the threat of environmental spillover from the occupational risks mentioned above. Wider community exposure to pesticides may come in the form of contamination of foodstuffs, the reuse of containers for food or water storage, the diversion of chemically-treated seeds for human consumption, and the contamination of ground water with chemical wastes. Extensive public education efforts are needed to raise awareness of the dangers involved in the improper handling, storage and disposal of agrochemicals as well as of safe work practices that can prevent accidents and reduce exposure. National systems of chemical safety management can help to ensure that agrochemicals are properly packaged and labeled throughout the distribution chain so that end users in rural communities have the information they need to handle these substances with the necessary precaution.

     Animal handling and contact with dangerous plants and biological agents give rise to allergies, respiratory disorders, zoonotic infections and parasitic diseases. In developing countries, in particular, a number of well-known and preventable animal diseases, such as brucellosis, leishmaniasis and echinococcosis, are transmitted to those working closely with animals, affecting millions each year. New threats to human health are posed by pathogens originating in animals and animal products. Indeed, three-quarters of the new diseases that have emerged over the past decade have arisen from this source (WHO-VPH, 2007). Yet, many countries lack effective veterinary and public health systems, let alone the multisectoral environmental health practices, required to prevent the spread of disease.

     The interaction between poor living and working condimon