information and capacity-building programs. Neither un­paid nor paid contributions to agricultural production by women and children have been fully recognized. Small-scale and group programs and special training, including in mar­keting and management, have helped some women benefit from AKST.

2.1       Agriculture and AKST in ESAP
In ESAP, the past half century witnessed a rapid population increase, from around 1.6 billion in 1960 to 3.4 billion in 2004. At the same time, remarkable economic growth took place in most countries, leading to significant increase in in­come and to demand for more and better food and other ag­ricultural products. During this period, AKST experienced unprecedented progress, which has been the foundation un­derlying the growth of agricultural production. Despite the encouraging achievement, it was also evident in many ESAP countries that the benefits of economic development and the increased food supply were not equally distributed. Mean­while, the exploitation of natural resources and intensive use of modern inputs caused serious environmental degra­dation, which undermined the sustainability of agricultural development.
     Agriculture is traditionally important in the national economy in most countries in the region. However, the share of agriculture in the gross domestic product (GDP) has de­clined since World War II, especially in the last three decades. As of 2005, ESAP produced more than 80% of the world's rice, vegetables, jute, sweet potato and coconut. It provided more than half of the world's tea, tobacco and peanuts, while accounting for more than 25% of the wheat, maize, white potato, cassava, millet, melon and sugarcane. The re­gion is also home to 30% of the world's livestock species. With the exception of the industrial countries in the region, most of the agriculture is in small holdings and diversified farming. Small farm size has limited the potential of employ­ment and income from agriculture. Rural-to-urban migra­tion, multiple occupations of the laborers and diversification of the rural economy have been evident in many countries.
     Except in a few countries, the absolute size of the ag­ricultural labor force has still been rising. Agricultural em­ployment has been especially important for the livelihood of the poor. Agriculture has served as an employment buffer and safety net in the face of large economic shocks, such as the Asian financial crisis in 1997 and 1998.
     During the last two to three decades, remarkable prog­ress in rural economic development has taken place in many countries, particularly China and India. AKST has played an important role. The significant improvement in crop yields enabled a large increase in food production. The amount of rural population living under poverty has reduced sub­stantially, although reduction rates vary greatly. However, evidence from India suggests that the augmentation of total food production has not always benefited the poor in in­creasing income and improving food security.
     Population growth and economic development have generated greater demand for food. An increasing popula­tion combined with limited arable land means little agricul­tural area per capita—an average of 0.2 ha each person—in the developing countries in the region (FAO, 2006a). With most people on less than half of the total land, pressure on

land, water, flora and fauna has been increasingly severe. Intensification of production with the support of modern AKST in almost all crop farming, animal husbandry, fishery and forestry has been evident in most ESAP countries.
     Modern AKST, particularly that associated with the Green Revolution, has been developed to increase the quan­tity of agricultural products and enhance their resilience to physical stress. However, the effects of AKST have varied from positive to negative, depending on the wealth and farm size of the groups involved. Some aspects of AKST are ap­plicable mainly to large and commercial farms; others are more suitable for small and subsistence farmers. Natural endowments, socioeconomics, culture and tradition all in­fluence AKST innovation and adoption.
     ESAP countries face new challenges for agricultural production.  In many areas  absolutely no more land is available for cultivation. Many areas, particularly parts of China and India, have endured water stress, threatening the sustainability of food production on irrigated land. At the same time, land degradation, environmental pollution, loss of biodiversity, and little or no investment in agricultural research and development have affected the agricultural po­tential of the region. In recent years, many ESAP countries have again become net food importers. A good understand­ing of past trends in agriculture and the effects of AKST in ESAP are useful in the search for appropriate AKST to meet the challenges of sustainable agricultural development and food security.

2.2      Trends in AKST: Agricultural Practices

2.2.1      Application of AKST to crop production
Over the past 50 years, the increase in land productivity has enabled farmers to feed twice as many people from less agricultural land. This productivity growth has been based mostly on generating, promoting, disseminating and adopt­ing AKST from formal and informal agricultural extension organizations. The principal agricultural technologies ad­opted were mainly in water management, chemical fertilizer use, variety development and crop protection, mechaniza­tion, livestock feeding and disease control, and sustainable resource management.
2.2.1.1   Expanding irrigated areas and adopting irrigation technology
Irrigation is widely used in ESAP. In many countries, irri­gation has had a long history, being closely linked to rice cultivation. Rapid population growth, limited arable land and continuous increase in demand for food in the past 50 years have driven an unprecedented expansion of the area under irrigation. Advances in modern dam construction, flow regulation and pumping equipment have provided the means to harness more water for irrigation.
     Between 1961 and 2003, irrigated areas in ESAP more than doubled, with an annual growth rate of around 2.6%. In China and India, the pace surpassed the average of the rest of the EASP countries (Figure 2-1). However, since the late 1990s, the expansion of irrigated areas has slowed; even India and China appear to have a slight decrease. By 2003, about 28% of the cultivated land in the region had been brought under irrigation.