Impacts of AKST on Development and Sustainability Goals | 197

dietary changes have contributed to rapidly rising obesity and its related chronic diseases such as "type 2" diabetes, hypertension, heart disease and cancers globally (WHO/ FAO, 2003). In 2005 more people were overweight (1.6 billion adults [age 15+]) than underweight worldwide and 400 million adults were obese (WHO, 2005a). This problem is now increasing in low- and middle-income countries (below 5% in China, Japan and certain African nations, to 40% in Colombia, Brazil, Peru (www.iaso.org), and over 75% in the Pacific), particularly in urban settings-almost 20% in some Chinese cities (WHO, 2003). In Africa, Latin America, Asia and the Pacific, there is now the double diet-related disease burden of undernutrition and obesity (Filozof et al., 2001; Monteiro et al., 2002; Rivera et al., 2002; Caballero, 2005).

Dietary diversity is a key element of a healthy diet.

Goals
N, H, L, E,
S, D
Certainty
B
Range of Impacts
+2 to +4
Scale
R
Specificity
Mainly in developing countries

With the increased focus on staple starch crops, and global food trends, dietary diversity has declined over recent decades (Hatloy et al., 2000; Marshall et al., 2001; Hoddinott and Yohannes, 2002). However, many studies have recognized the need for a diverse and balanced diet for optimum health (Randall et al., 1985; Krebs-Smith et al., 1987; Hatloy et al., 2000; Marshall et al., 2001). Healthy diets include fruits and vegetables, animal source proteins, and sources of fiber to (1) minimize the risks of cancer (Tuyns et al., 1987), vascular (Wahlquist et al., 1989) and cardiovascular diseases (Cox et al., 2000; Veer et al., 2000); (2) optimize birth weight of children (Rao et al., 2001), maintain overall health (Ruel, 2002), and prolong life expectancy (Kant et al., 1993), and (3) maximize earning capacity from manual labor (Ali and Farooq, 2004; Ali et al., 2006). Various measures and standards have been developed for food quality, which include Diet Quality Index (Patterson et al., 1994), Analysis of Core Foods (Kristal et al., 1990), and Healthy Eating Index (Kennedy et al., 1995). In addition, Dietary Diversity Scores are being devised to measure diet quality (Kant et al., 1993, 1995; Hatloy et al., 1998; Marshall et al., 2001; Ali and Farooq, 2004). A methodology has been developed to prioritize food commodities based on their total nutritive values (Ali and Tsou, 2000). Unlike food safety standards, measures of food quality or diet diversity have not been implemented nationally or internationally.

Food based approaches to tackle micronutrient deficiencies have long term benefits on health, educational ability and productivity.

Goals
N, L, E, D
Certainty
A
Range of Impacts
-2 to -5
Scale
G
Specificity
Small-scale farms in developing countries

Although the potential of food based dietary diversification to reduce micronutrient deficiency disease has not been fully explored or exploited (Ruel and Levin, 2000), new approaches to overcoming micronutrient deficiencies are focusing on diet diversification and food fortification. Food fortification has to date mostly been applied in industrialized countries, as technical, sociocultural, economic and

 

other challenges have constrained their use in less developed countries (WHO, 2005c). Food fortification is potentially more cost effective and sustainable than treating people with food supplements and is compatible with giving greater attention to diversified production of fruits, vegetables, oilcrops and grain legumes, as well as diverse animal source proteins including fish, poultry and dairy products (FAO, 1997). It is likely that a combination of strategies, including greater emphasis on traditional foods (Leakey, 1999a), is required to tackle micronutrient malnutrition (Johns and Eyzaguirre, 2007).

Animal source protein is one component of a healthy diet but rapid increases in livestock production and red meat consumption pose health risks by directly contributing to certain chronic diseases.

Goals
N, H, L, E,
S, D
Certainty
A/B
Range of Impacts
+3 to -3
Scale
G
Specificity
Worldwide

Animal source protein can be an important component of a healthy diet, but moderate consumption of meat and fish is desirable. A rapid rise in meat consumption in high, middle and some low income countries is linked to increased rates of ischaemic heart disease (particularly related to saturated fat), obesity and colorectal cancer (Law, 2000; Delgado, 2003; Popkin and Du, 2003; Larsson and Wolk, 2006). In the lowest income countries, especially Africa, consumption of animal source foods is often low, leading to malnutrition (Bwibo and Neumann, 2003). Moderate fish consumption has health benefits, e.g., reducing rates of coronary heart disease deaths (Mozaffarian and Rimm, 2006). Replacing ruminant red meat by monogastric animals or vegetarian farmed fish would create sources of animal source protein which would reduce rates of chronic diseases. A positive environmental side-effect could be reduced methane gas emissions (McMichael et al., 2007).

AKST has not solved food security problems for the rural poor.

Goals
N, H, L, E,
S, D
Certainty
B
Range of Impacts
-4 to -2
Scale
R
Specificity
Rural poor in developing
countries

The rural poor (who comprise 80% of those hungry worldwide) are dependent on environmental resources and services, are highly vulnerable to environmental degradation and climate change, and have poor access to markets, health care, infrastructure, fresh water, communications, and education. Wild and indigenous plants and animals are important to the dietary diversity and food security of an estimated 1 billion people (FAO, 2005b). Increased population pressures on forests and woodlands has led to a decline in gathered natural foods (Johns et al., 2006), which are often rich in nutrients, vitamins and minerals (Leakey, 1999a). The expansion of urban areas has also reduced the sources of fresh food from home gardens (Ali et al., 2006), as has the focus on large-scale, industrial production of crops and livestock at the expense of smaller mixed farming systems employed by the poor.