multaneous processes: (1) a gradual decline in the importance and, in many cases, in the competencies of the state, which has led to reductions in the budgets allocated to AKST, and in certain cases to the closure or merger of institutions specialized in this field; and (2) economic, social and technological processes, particularly in the Southern Cone, that have affected the agricultural sector in recent decades, particularly the scale and concentration of production. Both processes have placed greater emphasis on appropriable technologies directed at increasing productivity, with the private sector playing a key role in generating and adapting technology, mainly in fields related to plant and animal genetics, chemical fertilizers, health products, and agricultural machinery.

The scale of the R&D investments needed to obtain technology products consistent with growing demands for competitiveness in modern agriculture means that many R&D efforts are beyond the scope of national science and technology (S&T) bodies. In many cases such initiatives can only be undertaken by global technology firms, which obtain benefits through the sale of inputs and capital goods, and income from royalties for developments protected by intellectual-property rights.

In some countries, private mechanisms for generating and disseminating technology have eclipsed the work of public institutions, whose efforts have focused on addressing the needs of small- and medium-sized farmers—groups that are seldom of interest to firms that supply inputs, particularly when the potential customers are not able to purchase them in significant quantities.

Beyond the role of the private companies specialized in generating innovations and technology for the agricultural sector, private or public-private partnerships based on production chains have emerged in recent years that, in some countries of the region, implement research programs on topics they themselves have identified. Such innovative, albeit incipient,
activities are carried out in close association with science and technology institutions and universities, and are good examples of identifying demands and engaging in planning and coordination to resolve technological problems.

Many significant advances in technology have been achieved by “catching up” with technologies generated in developed countries and adapting them to local or regional conditions in different countries. This has led to some very competitive developments in certain crops and regions especially in temperate zones—with relatively little effort or investment in science and technology at the national level, by simply adapting the technology of other countries with similar agroecological conditions. However, it should be noted that certain LAC countries with fewer resources, particularly those in tropical and subtropical zones, have been unable to address specific local needs due to the lack of basic and applied research, and because they have not developed sufficient capacity in the field.9 National public institutions has focused R&D mainly
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⁹ It should be noted that in developed countries, technology for temperate zone crops is more readily available than for tropical ones; consequently, there are fewer possibilities of using foreign technology and adapting it to the tropical climate of LAC countries.

on the most relevant ways of improving farmers’ livelihoods and incomes, while social and environmental aspects have traditionally received less attention. It is only in the last two decades that these issues have become more important in NARIs’ activities.

The region’s public AKST system has also placed greater emphasis on generating “hard” production technologies than on “soft” organizational technologies, due to the characteristics of its own member institutions. This has hindered their linkages with production models—a situation aggravated by the fact that technology products are often generated from the supply side, without considering the needs and capabilities of their recipients. As a result, support is growing for a line of thought that holds that the management of technological development should involve a greater participation by end users.

Demand-side requirements are becoming increasingly important in determining the types of technologies needed. Consumers and more concentrated distribution channels require new services like product traceability, certifications of origin and processes, respect for the environment, and “natural” products. This, in turn, has placed new demands
on the AKST system.

Given that technology is both an economic and a social good, and given the negative social and economic trends in many Latin American and Caribbean countries in recent years, public AKST institutions have begun to incorporate social issues, such as subsistence agriculture and urban agriculture, in their agendas. However, S&T institutions are still a long way from being able to respond to specific demands in terms of developing appropriate technologies for the most disadvantaged sectors.

In some countries, extension and technology transfer systems have undergone major changes in the last two decades as a result of public institutions assigning greater importance to social issues and to small farmers due to the aforementioned emergence of the private sector as the main provider of appropriable technologies to larger producers, toward whom agricultural extension and technology transfer is generally directed. For specific types of farmers, independent professionals—both agronomists and veterinarians— are an important factor in technological development.

It should be noted that in some cases there is an important spillover effect, with the technology used by larger producers being adopted by small farmers, especially when they are not prevented from doing so by economic or cultural constraints.

2.1.3 Regional organizations, international centers and other regional cooperation mechanisms
LAC has had a long experience—more than half a century— of regional cooperation between countries and institutions on agricultural research and education. The existence of common problems in different regional and sub-regional spheres and in some fields of interest, as well as the constraints encountered in attempting to develop significant independent agricultural research programs, especially in the smaller countries, led to the implementation of various initiatives. In some cases, these efforts were consolidated in new regional institutional structures: In others, they resulted in joint or cooperative research projects and programs