and beyond. For example ground neem (Azadirachta indica) seeds have been widely used in India as a natural insecti­cide and fertilizer, and the leaves are used to protect grains stored in local containers (Arnason et al., 1985; Prijono and Hassan, 1993; Gajalakshmi and Abbasi, 2004). Neem, currently marketed as a modern biopesticide, is effective against malaria and internal worms and is reportedly used by 500 million Indians in brushing their teeth, as well as for making soap. Another example is Conospermum, com­monly called smokebush in Australia, used traditionally by Aboriginal peoples for a variety of therapeutic purposes. In the late 1980s the plant was found to contain a substance called conocurvone, reported to have potential in treating AIDS (Nader and Mateo, 1998; Vermani and Garg, 2002). It is estimated that in 1985, US$43 million worth of plant-based medicines (many of which were used first by indig­enous peoples) were sold in developed countries (Principe, 1989). As advances in biotechnology broaden the range of life forms containing attributes with commercial applica­tions, the full market value of traditional knowledge will certainly increase.
     Similarly, local and traditional knowledge and practices in animal agriculture systems include methods of animal breeding and production, specific uses of traditional fodder and forage species, animal-disease classification and tradi­tional ethno-veterinary medicine (Grenier, 1998). A recent study in India revealed that traditional health control and treatment systems were effective in curing a number of ail­ments in animals including dysentery, arthritis, dog bites, coughs and colds, anoestrus, wounds, bloat and diarrhea (De et al., 2004). While modern veterinary medicines were found to provide relief more rapidly than traditional treat­ment and preparations, the latter are cheaper and locally available to farmers, especially in remote areas.
     Aquaculture   systems   integrated   into   cropping   sys­tems and utilizing indigenous knowledge and traditional practices—such as the rice-fish systems in Bangladesh— can contribute to food security and food diversity (Pretty and Hine, 2000). Rice-fish systems are also traditionally practiced across Southeast and East Asia where they have provided numerous benefits to farming households beyond additional and diversified sources of food and nutrients. For example, the introduction of larva-eating fish into rice fields in Quanzhou County, Jiangsu Province, China has increased rice yields, reduced pesticide use and significantly reduced the incidence of malaria (Pretty and Hine, 2000). The di­versified and integrated nature of rice-fish farming has also provided a natural system of protection against crop pests and diseases.
     Indigenous peoples in the region have practiced sustain­able forest utilization and management techniques for centu­ries. Indigenous knowledge in forestry includes management of forest plots and their productivity, knowledge and sus­tainable use of forest plants and animals and understanding the interrelationships between tree species, improved crop yields and soil fertility (Grenier, 1998). The indigenous Hani communities in Mengsong, Xishuangbanna, in China's Yun­nan province have developed a system of classifying forests according to their function and products. In Sri Lanka, forestry has traditionally been combined with cropping

and animal rearing, such as in the classical Kandyan Forest Gardens where the agricultural system simulates a tropical rain forest involving small land units averaging about one hectare and consists of a mix of as many as 30 perennial and semi-perennial trees and shrubs (UNESCAP, 2002). The farmers who practice this system are reported to enjoy a relatively better living because of returns from both cash crops and subsistence products and improved health and longevity.
     Indigenous practices of importance include the tradi­tional use of fire in forest management and conservation, facilitating crop production and pest control and preventing unplanned burns (Jackson and Moore, 1998). For instance, annual fires as practiced by local people in Sumbawa, Indo­nesia are intended to maintain grasslands in a condition that favors grazing animals and enables wild herbivore popula­tions to be maintained at higher levels than they would be without fires. Similarly, local communities in Nepal use fire extensively to promote the regeneration of grass for animal agriculture.
     Traditional knowledge systems continue to contribute in the development of agriculture throughout the ESAP region, largely because they are often inexpensive to implement and can be paid for in goods or services and they are readily available and accessible even to those who do not have cash incomes (Fernández, 1994). In most cases indigenous knowl­edge systems are socially desirable, economically affordable, environmentally sustainable and involve minimal risk to rural farmers and producers. Since they evolved gradually within the community and are under its control, local and traditional knowledge systems are considered more directed towards self-reliance and self-sufficiency than are modern technologies imposed from outside (Fernández, 1994).

5.3.1.2   Challenges
Traditional agriculture is considered labor intensive which may be a disadvantage or advantage depending on the so­cial circumstances. The labor requirement may keep people from engaging in other economic activities, but it can also provide employment for rural people who might otherwise migrate to urban areas. Indigenous knowledge and tradi­tional agricultural systems have much to offer to the future development of sustainable agricultural systems in ESAP countries. The role they play should be in response to spe­cific local needs and conditions to maintain food security and improve micronutrient content of food with minimal human and environmental health consequences, taking into account gender equity and equitable access to resources. Government policies must not ignore people's knowledge and must recognize that traditional knowledge plays an es­sential role in development (Warren, 1991). An enabling environment that supports the conservation, use and pro­motion of traditional knowledge, as well as its interaction with modern agricultural systems is needed to maximize the potentials of these knowledge systems.
     Increasing population and the accompanying pressure on productive resources such as water and land brought about by the expansion of modern agriculture and indus­trialization, pressures from modernization and cultural ho-mogenization are posing serious challenges to the viability