Development, Training and Extension (RDTE) and related systems if agriculture is to meet sustainability and develop­ment goals. It may be important to implement institutional changes in rules, norms, conventions and habits within RDTE   and  related  organizations  to   enhance   exchange among various stakeholders. A learning-based approach appropriate to each specific context is one creative option to meet this need.
     Developing appropriate policies is important, but hav­ing sound policy does not ensure compliance with guide­lines for improved performance. First, many of the small countries in the region have limited capacity to implement policies as exemplified by the gaps in the capacity of several nations to implement policies related to biosafety, IPR and food quality standards. Secondly, quite often the policy only prescribes what to do, without taking into account what needs to be done to get the policy implemented. Ideally, the policy should also facilitate change, through a process of ex­perimentation, reflection and learning so that it develops the capacity of the various stakeholders to identify bottlenecks, experiment with alternative ways of working and evaluate performance. The actors thereby learn what needs to be changed or modified and how to develop better policies.
     The implementation of appropriate agricultural policies and programs requires collaboration among a large num­ber of organizations that involves the creation of appropri­ate forums for partnership (e.g., working groups, steering committees) and the development of mechanisms to ensure collective decision-making. Organizations with a tradition of working in isolation may find it difficult to adjust to in­clusive governance mechanisms and may invite opposition. Yet, developing skills to manage transitions can contribute to a collective ownership of change.

5.2.7     Actors and organizations
Agricultural development in the region depends upon the performance of a large number of actors and organiza­tions; those involved in RDTE, as well as those involved in the generation and distribution of inputs, supply of credit, value addition and marketing and the development and implementation of policies with attention to the context that shapes the interaction among these different constit­uencies. Though many people are present in the different ESAP countries, there is a wide diversity in number, capabil­ity and performance, which has implications for planning agricultural   development  interventions.   First,   importing models of technological change that may have been suc­cessful elsewhere, may not adequately address agricultural development in this region indicating the need for country and region-specific interventions and approaches. Second, the development or application of new technologies need not be the starting point for agricultural development. In­stead, complementing new technologies with institutional innovations may more adequately address the complex in­teraction of agricultural development and environmental sustainability.
     Donor funds and expertise from CGIAR centers and the FAO, for example, have facilitated the development of infra­structure, extension services and human resources in most ESAP countries. However, many of the small countries in

this region do not have adequate capacity to adopt emerging technologies, exploit the potential of ICTs, respond to new challenges from integration of trade and enforce protocols related to biodiversity and biosafety. Research and devel­opment efforts need to be strengthened in biotechnology, postharvest technology, IPRs and food legumes and minor fruits and vegetables. Currently, international donors in­cluding the World Bank, Asian Development Bank, FAO, IFAD and international networks such as CGIAR, ACIAR, GFAR and APAARI support select countries in agricultural development along with regional networks. Increasing the funding levels of these international and regional networks could greatly increase their reach.
     There has also been a decline in public support for re­search and extension leading to vacancies and reduced op­erational funding. Concurrently, private sector investments in agricultural research and extension have increased. Apart from private input companies and agribusiness firms, sev­eral other actors are increasingly intervening in research and extension, including producer cooperatives, farmer associa­tions and NGOs. Media (print, radio and television) have increased their role in the dissemination of information on agricultural practices and technologies, development pro­grams and market arrivals and commodity pricing. The internet is an emerging source of agricultural information, although its use varies widely within and between ESAP countries.
     Though a large number of organizations with compli­mentary skills and expertise exist, they have yet to collab-oratively address new and existing agricultural challenges. Making new knowledge, information, or technology avail­able and put into productive use occurs best when differ­ent actors in innovation systems share knowledge and work in partnership. Though efforts have been made to promote such collaboration, they have yet to alter how organiza­tions function. New forms of interaction, organization and agreement between multiple actors ought to be encouraged if agriculture is to be environmentally and economically sus­tainable in the ESAP region.

5.2.8     Social exclusion and gender inequality
Social exclusion derives  from exclusionary relationships based on power and hierarchy and intersects with other aspects of social disadvantage, such as gender, caste, eth­nicity and religious minority status. Exclusion is a multidi­mensional process that prevents individuals or groups from access to institutions of governance, public services like health care and education and economic resources as well as factors of production (Beall et al., 2005). Further, exclu­sionary relationships are nurtured and maintained through systemic violence and the denial of rights that contributes to sustained poverty.
     Most of the region's poor live and work in rural ar­eas, making agriculture and land rights central to the strug­gle against poverty. To date, debate over land rights has brought rural and urban populations and industrial inter­ests and farmers into violent confrontation as inequalities in decision-making have denied villagers access to traditional lands in bids to facilitate industrial expansion. In China, where the average land available per capita is only 40% of