the release and utilization of GM crops in the region (Sahai, 2003). The ESAP region, with the exception of China, is wary of release of transgenic crops and livestock into the production environment. Japan still has and perhaps will continue to hold its ban on all transgenic agricultural crops and commodities though it is a leader in biotechnology ap­plications in the health and environment sectors. Overall the ESAP region is weak in evaluation and risk analysis required for the release of genetically modified organisms and research policy in ESAP countries will continue to ignore the alter­natives proposed to assess risk and estimate the costs and benefits of/from GMOs using non-monetary and pluralistic approaches (Jasanoff, 2000). Pro-active and democratic de­cision making processes in S&T, especially concerning choice of technology, may take time to emerge in ESAP, despite the demand for discursive processes, ecological and democratic values in S&T in the region (see Dryzek, 1998).
     There is a need to address gaps in communication and articulation capacities that arise from a discontent with and mistrust about technological changes that have evolved over time. These are often called the "violence of science" (Shiva, 2000; PAN, 2002). This distrust is of two kinds: (1) a blue, nostalgic mode that craves for the old world uncorrupted by modern medicine, chemical fertilizers and polluted wa­ter, and (2) a green, forward-looking mode that demands a cleanup of the current mess of lifestyles, disrupted eco­systems, social tensions and pollution (Bauer and Gaskell, 2002). Asia will now increasingly invest in media research to assess these nuances of discontent with biotechnology and to see how it is articulated (as blue or green objections to modern technology, as wider political economy arguments, as governance or institutional reform processes).

4.2.6.4  Pesticide and herbicide use
Pesticide and herbicide use in the ESAP region is not as in­tensive as it is in much of North America or Europe. Yet, the damage to water bodies and ecosystems at large is rated as severe (UNESCAP, 2005). There are some tracts that use a heavy dose (of over 80% of recommended dose) of pesticides and herbicides (Huang et al., 2002). The pesticide industry expects that world demand for pesticides will soar until 2009 when many of the current pesticides become cheaper because patents have expired (http://freedonia.ecnext.com/ coms2/summary_0285-284519_ITM). This trend may be sustained in the developed regions. In Asia fungicides may increase in use because of their effectiveness against soybean rust (see 4.2.7)
     The alternatives to heavy pesticide and herbicide use come from at least three different scientific and social per­spectives, all receiving acclaim, policy attention and NGO-led mobilization or campaigns in the ESAP region.
•   The emergence of genetically modified crops with in­bred resistance to specific pests and diseases; examples include cotton engineered for resistance to the American boll worm, brinjal/egg-plant engineered to resist the fruit borer and rice engineered to resist the tungro virus and blight. Developments in this area are likely to continue.
•   An increasingly popular alternative is integrated pest management (IPM or a more stringent version called non-pesticide management, NPM), which uses a combi-

nation of physical, chemical, biological agents and mod­ern weather based or traditional knowledge inputs.
•   Organic agriculture use no chemical inputs  (includ­ing synthetic fertilizers)  and soil and water systems are detoxified; cultivation processes and processing of produce are certified by some EU-based or American certification process.

While agricultural research systems have and will continue to invest heavily in pesticide research and in biotechnology and in IPM (ranging from no pesticides to biopesticides), there is very little resource allocation, capacity building, and conviction in the public sector NARS to work on organic agriculture. In India organic agriculture is largely funded by international donor agencies and conducted largely by uni­versity departments and NGOs, with little information or scientific support from public sector agricultural R&D or­ganizations (See www.csa-india.org). While organic agricul­ture is big business with private investment and research in Australia, in countries like China, Indonesia, Thailand and Philippines, organic agriculture receives significant public sector R&D attention. They have established organic stan­dards and certification systems and have policies to promote organic agriculture for export and for domestic markets.
     Japan is and will continue to be the largest consumer of organic products in Asia with a growth rate of 21 % pro­jected till 2020. Several countries, including China, Thai­land and Bhutan have declared their own national strategies for organic agriculture (FAO, 2004). The growth of organic agriculture and markets and other facilitation services like certification agencies must be viewed in conjunction with the overall growth expected in the Asian retail market. Food retail in Asia is expected to greatly increase, accounting for 41% of the global food retail trade in 2020 (Partos, 2007).

4.2.6.5  Innovation or generation and utilization of knowledge
A recent development in the Philippines, the emergence of a 5-year development plan by the Benguet State University (BSU) to develop an "organic agricultural college," is an innovation intended to produce human capacities for learn­ing about, researching, and extending technical support and market services for organic agriculture in the country. In Thailand, the Prime Minister has requested experts to en­sure that Thai farmers produce the finest and best quality produce (www.bilaterals.org, 1 Nov 2006). These examples reflect two major concerns that Asian agricultural research organizations are being asked to address: (1) the capacity to utilize in the field the knowledge that is generated, and (2) the capacity to learn about and respond to emerging chal­lenges in the agriculture sector/other sectors that may affect agriculture. The ESAP region plans to build the capacity of a system of inter-related organizations and individuals to enable the generation and utilization of knowledge and pre­pare for the changes that may take place.
     The ESAP region has witnessed a renewed interest and scholarship in agricultural innovation. Questions being asked include (1) why is there a widening gap between research and utilization of knowledge, and (2) why is there so little that policy makers learn about field conditions (SDPI, 2005ab;