intensive development. However, natural resource issues -water quantity and quality, population growth, environmental deterioration-remain the same (Abdel-Kader et al., 1994).

In highland Balochistan, in Pakistan, an indigenous khuskaba system uses bunds to guide runoff water and promote infiltration. Rodriguez et al. (1996) found 1:1 treatments (catchment:production area ratio) in valley floors increased seven-year wheat yields over controls, higher ratios having a risk of waterlogging in wetter years. Farmers practicing the indigenous khuskaba system adjust the size of the catchment according to soil moisture at planting and rainfall expectations for the season.

Several water storage practices have been passed down from generation to generation. The individual cistern is an ancient method that has been in continuous use with some modifications. Cisterns have long been used by people without access to adequate and safe water or villages lacking a local water source or not connected to a water supply network. Harvested rainwater stored in cisterns during the short rainy months can adequately sustain the water supply in isolated habitations. Cisterns can also be a multiuse resource; besides water for drinking and cooking, households can use extra water for irrigating productive home gardens and for watering livestock. In 1982, studies were conducted on traditional cisterns and what was necessary to build, modernize and manage more of them (Bourges et al., 1979; Fujimura, 1982).

The region is also rich in traditional knowledge related to irrigation-kharez in Pakistan and Afghanistan, qanat in Iran, foggarras in Tunisia and Algeria and khettaras in Morocco. The survival of these ancient irrigation systems is testimony to brilliant local engineering. Presumed to be of Persian origin and introduced to the Maghreb during the Arab conquest, these systems were partly responsible for the wealth of the former ksours along the trans-Saharan trade routes of the past.

A kharez (qanat) is an unlined tunnel in the hillside, bringing water by free flow from underground aquifers to be used for surface irrigation. Dug by local craftsmen from shafts at close intervals, they are small in size but may be many kilometers long. In Afghanistan, data of the last inventory, conducted in 1967, estimated that 6,470 kharez still supply water to 167,750 ha. Kharez are often used for the domestic water supply.

In North Africa, the simplicity and ingenuity of these underground systems allow the capture and distribution of groundwater over thousands of kilometers. The system works through a complex network of underground channels and storage chambers set 10 to 15 meters deep, to avoid loss through evaporation. Hundreds of conduits (seguias) carry water, bringing it eventually to the surface and thanks to a slight slope, leading it to gardens at a flow of 3 to 12 liters per second.

2.5.2.4 Intellectual property rights

Several proposals have been made, within and outside the IPR system, to "protect" traditional knowledge (Correa, 2001). Such proposals often fail to set out clearly the rationale for its protection. Any system of protection, however, is an instrument for achieving certain objectives. Therefore,

a fundamental question, before considering how traditional knowledge may be protected, is to define why it should be.

Some understand the concept of protecting IPR, where protection means to exclude unauthorized use. Others regard protection as a tool to preserve traditional knowledge from uses that may erode it or negatively affect the life or culture of the communities that have developed and applied it. Overall, the main arguments for protecting traditional knowledge include:

• Equity considerations
• Conservation concerns
• Preservation of traditional practices and culture
• Prevention of unauthorized parties appropriating traditional knowledge components
• Promotion of its use and its importance in development

2.5.3 Human capacity enhancement

Enhancing human capacity is important for agricultural development; therefore, capacity building is primary in development programs. Capacity is built so that country scientists and extension staff become more able to carry out integrated agricultural research, disseminate the information, demonstrate techniques and transfer technologies.

National programs in the region vary widely in their development, capability and needs. Countries benefit through collaborating with regional international institutions operating in CWANA and by networking to improve and strengthen the capacity for adopting and transferring technology. ICARDA and other CGIAR centers in the region play a catalytic role in helping various regional countries.

Since its establishment in 1977, ICARDA has considered training, capacity building and networking as essential for institutions and individuals to keep pace academically and professionally with the rapid development in agricultural sciences, especially in developing countries. ICARDA recognizes that a well-trained cadre of agricultural technicians, scientists and managers is essential to develop effective and sustainable national agricultural research systems (NARS). The center has responded by working closely with NARS to develop and implement training programs that address their changing needs.

Based on the needs of NARS, the center offers many training options, including long-term courses, specialized short-term courses, individual non-degree training and MSc and PhD degree-related studies. ICARDA organizes regional, subregional and country courses, which are usually conducted in close collaboration with NARS. International courses are also organized in collaboration with other international and regional organizations on subjects of mutual interest.

Training at ICARDA changes annually in response to NARS training priorities. These priorities are usually presented by national scientists and discussed during the annual national, subregional and regional meetings with NARS and during regular work visits.

ICARDA has improved its training program to better address human capacity development (www.icarda.org) by

• Refining selection procedures of training participants
• Decentralizing large parts of training activities from its headquarters to national programs
• Placing more emphasis on specialized training courses, including the degree-related training programs