giving them special attention. Capacity development in this area focuses too heavily on technical training. Management and strategic planning, fund raising, public awareness and policy have not been considered in the past. What the capacity- building needs are of the plant genetic resource centers or the farmers has not been identified. Initiatives are not assessed and there is the risk of overemphasizing capacity needed in some areas and underestimating that in others.

Marketing and policies

Marketing is seen as a main element (or a main constraint) in developing the agricultural sector in the region. It affects the improvement of livelihoods of the rural population and rural development in general. Marketing opportunities and market participation are related to the sustainability of the farming and production systems, mainly for the poor. Markets in CWANA lack facilities-they are sometimes gathering places rather than markets; they lack regulations-or at least the existing regulations are not enforced; and conditions are not competitive-the marketplace suffers from collusion and bilateral negotiation. Importers and exporters have high transaction costs. Some markets are extremely protected from foreign competition, as in the Gulf region.

Locally, production is scattered and there is no marketing chain. Quality control is not well developed and the consumer has no role. Transport costs are high for small-scale farmers; few farmer organizations are able to transport and market agricultural products in bulk. Some commodities, like citrus, tomatoes, peppers, dates, have seen a major increase in yields-sometimes overproduction. Because there are no local storage and processing facilities and because farmer organizations are not as structured and strong as is needed, middlemen control farm-gate prices. Hence smallscale farmers do not get good prices and cannot invest in their system and repeat it the following year.

1.5 Status of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology

1.5.1 Knowledge

Since the beginning of human settlement, major civilizations have started at the shores of rivers and lakes. Water is an important factor in initiating a human settlement. At the edge of desert and in valley areas where water is only plentiful during the winter, how to manage water resources became a big challenge to the builders of settlements. How to collect and store winter floodwater and use it during dry seasons was extremely important and valued knowledge. Ancient peoples had simple tools and techniques to build water-collecting systems adequate to support their demands during the dry months. This knowledge and associated techniques were developed over time, and efficient water-harvesting systems were installed in some parts of the desert. Indeed, CWANA contains the ruins of many civilizations who were pioneers in water harvesting such as the Maareb civilization in Yemen and the Nabateans in Jordan. These civilizations have left a heritage of rainwater-harvesting knowledge that helped people sustain themselves in the harsh environment of the drylands. Over time water-harvesting techniques have been developed and modified to adapt to different geomorphologic and climatological situations. Some are discussed here.

In areas where the catchments are significantly large, macroharvesting systems are implemented that have large-scale collecting and distributing schemes. For local and small catchments, smaller water-harvesting systems are more suitable.

One technique of micro water harvesting developed and used for rangelands enhancement is to build a series of check dams and contour lines to concentrate runoff water for wild vegetation. This technique results in effective rainfall many times actual rainfall. In Jordan, such techniques have been adopted in various parts of the country. Research is being conducted to see their efficiency and sustainability, mainly in enhancing rangeland. One popular technique is earth bunds (or hafira) (10,000-50,000 m3). Water collected in the earth bund is used for watering livestock and sometimes for domestic use in remote areas, as in Sudan. The bunds were dug and managed by local communities in the past, but now the government uses earth-moving machines to dig them. The bunds are maintained by governments and some NGOs.

For crop production and in wet areas, terraces are built to serve two purposes: to stabilize soil from erosion and to harvest runoff. These techniques have been practiced for thousands of years in Yemen.

1.5.2 Science and technology

Investments in agricultural science and technology have expanded rapidly during the last four decades. Major technical and institutional reforms have occurred, which have shaped the pattern of developing and disseminating technology. In the early 1970s, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) was established and national agricultural research systems (NARS) were greatly strengthened. During the 1980s and 1990s, partnerships among CGIAR centers and NARS were established, including the ecoregional consortia.

Historically, research has been conducted on the role of organic matter in soils, the development of reduced tillage systems, the use of on-farm organic resources in combination with inorganic fertilizers and the role of legumes in biological nitrogen fixation. Similarly, there has been research in integrated pest management (IPM) and in weed and pest control. These topics are of little interest to the private sector and are in danger of neglect by public research institutions. In most CWANA countries, agricultural research is not a priority. Levels of funding do not meet international requirements. Internationally, 2% of the GDP is allocated to research, but not in CWANA. NARS are short of financial support and personnel, which has emigrated from some countries. Some particular features of the international agenda are these:

• The global research agenda is gradually moving from a focus on individual crop performance to a growing acceptance of the importance of increased system productivity. This is viewed largely in terms of better-managed interactions among diversified farm enterprises, sustainable resource management, and improved targeting of technologies toward women farmers and poorer households.
• Perhaps even more importantly in the long term, institutional modalities are now shifting. From a public sector focus, largely led by the international system, more emphasis is now being given to public-private partner-