appreciable increase in cereal production up to 1990, 31.5 million tonnes, but since then production has fallen sharply, dropping back by 2005 to the 1975 figure of 19 million. In the Arabian Peninsula cereal production increased steadily and peaked in 1990 at 4.9 million tonnes, three times that of 1975, 1.5 million tonnes; it has now dropped to twice the figure of 1975. Cereal production in Mashreq (Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria) performed well between 1980 and 1995: 9 million tonnes, but dropped to about 130% of the 1975 figure, 5 million tonnes (FAO, 2006a).

Sustainable land use is a challenge to all people living in drylands. Problems in CWANA include desertification, inadequate knowledge of more productive land-use practices, political marginalization and low investment. People also confront major problems in attaining sustainable land use because of inadequate knowledge of alternative land-use practices. Many people observe a "tradition" in agriculture not always matched by similar, traditional, approaches toward forestry, wildlife ranching and ecotourism, all of which have become profitable enterprises in many dryland regions of the world. This lack of appreciation can be a barrier to innovation in land use, especially on marginal agricultural land. Such barriers are often overcome through farmer education, extension services, and, most of all, through demonstrating the benefits of more diversified land use.

The drylands of the region suffer from the vicious cycle of low productivity, low investment and, as a result, poverty. Investments, apart from those made for irrigated agriculture, are relatively small. Low productivity, low investment and land degradation often lead to desertification and are responsible for regional poverty and income disparity. The poverty and hunger prevalent in some CWANA countries, like Sudan, are poignant examples of this situation. Other critical problems include the inherent problems of water scarcity, tenure considerations and ineffective development policies. Improving this situation requires that a variety of technical and institutional problems be solved. An example would be increasing the investment in appropriate agriculture, alternative land-use practices and other appropriate, income-generating interventions. Other solutions include designing strategies for risk management and implementing programs for more equitable land distribution and income.

As noted, CWANA is climatically diverse, mainly with hyperarid, arid and semiarid zones. The region has highly variable and uncertain climates. Climatic variability and associated floods and droughts result in increased risks of crop failure and reduced food security. While precipitation in many CWANA countries averages 200-500 mm annually, suitable for some crops, the extreme fluctuation in precipitation from year to year make such averages irrelevant. We cannot depend upon average precipitation to plan agricultural and natural resource development or urban expansion. As a result of low and erratic precipitation in the drylands, ephemeral or intermittent streams are the norm. Flash floods from intense rainfall are highly variable and are common in many CWANA countries. Dry stream channels may become torrents within hours of convective storms that occurred several kilometers upstream.

Land use and water are inextricably linked but often are not managed in concert. Watershed management

offers the framework for achieving integrated management to increase or sustain food and natural resource production while protecting the soil and water (Brooks et al., 1997). This approach recognizes that land use in uplands affects the flow and quality of water downstream. Water resource development in the form of reservoirs and canals can affect the type and intensity of land use throughout a watershed. Transforming this recognition into effective solutions, however, is currently hampered by inadequate policies and an absence of institutions and arrangements needed to integrate sectoral cooperation, upon which implementation depends (Kundzewicz, 1997). Understanding and coping with the links between land use and water is critical. Water should be viewed as the most valuable product of the land and the one resource upon which all other production depends. In discussing needs and opportunities for enhanced management of CWANA, we must recognize and be able to work with variable and often unpredictable precipitation and water yield.

Soil erosion reduces the productivity of upland watersheds. The sediment that reaches stream channels can adversely affect reservoirs, water systems and water quality in downstream riparian corridors. This is a typical environmental problem in downstream countries of the Nile Valley. However, soil erosion in the highlands could be interpreted as a "good thing," a source of nutrients for lowland agriculture. For example, the annual flooding of the Nile in Egypt was the basis for productive agriculture, now disrupted by the Aswan High dam.

In all drylands under intensive use, common issues and problems arise that need to be addressed through management. Foremost, drylands have commonly been viewed as wastelands, not worthy of economic concern or political attention. Global concerns about desertification over the past few decades have, however, focused more attention on dryland issues and the need for land-use reform. "Desertification" often describes areas that have become desert-like from human-induced degradation. To some extent, emerging programs to combat desertification have helped generate the political, economic and technical support needed to reverse land degradation. However, certain inherent characteristics of drylands place limits on the potential for agricultural, natural resource and urban development. Conditions also make watersheds vulnerable to degradation and curtail our ability to restore or rehabilitate the land.

1.3.3 Livestock and fisheries

For many livestock owners in CWANA, livestock is a sign of wealth and social prestige. Herd numbers count for more than herd quality. Husbandry is mainly on natural pastures and extensive nomadic grazing. Most of these pastures are poor from frequent droughts and overgrazing. The number of cattle in the region goes up to 124 million head, about 9% of the world's cattle. Sheep number about 320 million head, 30% of the world total; goats about 189 million (23%); and camels about 14 million head (68%). Cattle are most abundant in Sudan (38 million), Pakistan (24 million), Turkey (10 million) and Iran (9 million). Small ruminants abound in Sudan (90 million head), Pakistan (83 million) and Iran (81 million). Camels are mostly in Somalia (7 million head), Sudan (3 million) and Mauritania (1.4 million).