biotechnology, for example, will not solve all the problems of food insecurity and poverty in CWANA. But it could provide a key component to a solution if given the chance, and if steered by a set of appropriate policies that would guide an increased public investment in R&D, foster regulatory arrangements that inform and protect the public from any risks arising from the release of GMOs, implement intellectual property management to encourage greater private sector investment, and introduce appropriate regulation to protect the interests of small farmers and poor consumers (IFPRI, 1999).

Policy research is needed to better understand the political and institutional factors that promote or inhibit the use of new ideas in CWANA at all levels (local, national and regional), and specifically those factors that encourage institutions and mechanisms for effectively articulating science and technology policies. Other areas for policy research:

• Identification of policies that improve access to global knowledge and technology

• The interface between technological change, institutional change and policy environments
• Formulation of and education about appropriate policies for biotechnology and biosafety
• Investigation of policies on intellectual property

New technologies, particularly biotechnology, will require new approaches to regulate their use. Some of these technologies remain controversial because of potential health and environmental risks (World Bank, 2007). It will be necessary to have biosafety procedures in place to ensure that the benefits of these modern technologies are realized (FAO, 2003). It will also be necessary to provide appropriate regulatory mechanisms to ensure that modern biotechnology products such as GMOs that might interact with the environment are as safe as the products of traditional biotechnology (ADB, 2001), and that the benefits of GMOs outweigh their risks. The sociopolitical ramifications of new agricultural biotechnologies should not be overlooked. These include the potential widening of the prosperity gap between the North and the South; the exploitation of indigenous genetic resources without appropriate compensation to indigenous populations; and an increased inequality in the distribution of income that biotechnology might create since the privileged classes derive earlier and greater benefits from the introduction of powerful technologies than do the socially disadvantaged (Leisinger, 1996). The good news is that sound domestic policies and international cooperation can go a long way toward reducing the sociopolitical risks of new technologies.

Technology regulation should be science based (FAO, 2002), and the regulatory framework should not be regarded in isolation from the broader policy context of agriculture and the contribution that technology might make in the particular economic, social and environmental context of individual countries (ADB, 2001). In addition, the establishment of an effective regulatory capacity must go hand-inhand with investment in technology appropriate for farmers (USAID, 2005). For example, to realize the goal of facilitating environmental sustainability, appropriate regulatory
institutions should be in place to limit environmental degradation. Since the underlying driving force for environmental

degradation through the harmful use of farming technologies is frequently poverty rather than factors inherent in agricultural technology itself, farmers should realize personal economic benefits from using environmentally friendly technologies and also recognize the social benefits from environmental protection. Only when sustainable agricultural technologies are profitable for farmers will they comply with regulatory requirements and employ environmentally sustainable production techniques (World Bank, undated).

It is the responsibility of national governments to ensure that national regulatory systems are applied, enforced and monitored (ADB, 2001). The regulatory capacity of the public sector in CWANA countries to address food safety and environmental issues will determine the success of modern technologies in individual countries. Without functioning regulatory systems, the private sector is unlikely to invest in modern technologies appropriate for CWANA countries. Effective intellectual property regulations are also important
for any long-term investment in modern agricultural technology on the part of the private sector. Regional cooperation in intellectual property and biosafety regulations has great potential for simplifying both technology access and agricultural trade (USAID, 2005).

Judgment and dialogue are essential elements in any science-based regulatory framework (FAO, 2002). At present, there is widespread distrust of biotechnology, and modern biotechnologies such as genetic engineering in food and agriculture cannot succeed unless the public is engaged in dialogue and convinced of its safety and usefulness before these technologies are disseminated widely (ADB, 2001). It is important for CWANA communities to be informed about the technology they want to use, the service level they require, and especially to have a clear understanding of longterm costs and maintenance implications, so that they can choose what is most appropriate for them under their budget constraints (World Bank, undated). Public engagement will be a precondition for the appropriate and successful implementation of modern technologies in CWANA, since communities may have knowledge that will affect decisions on uses of modern technology in the local context (Gender Advisory Board, 2004).

In each country in CWANA, the successful local development of technologies or the transfer and adaptation of innovations from others will depend on the supportive environment faced by investors and producers alike. Only if countries have appropriate policy, regulatory and institutional frameworks in place to support science and technology can they contribute to the achievement of sustainable development goals by increasing agricultural productivity and stimulating economic growth (USDA, 2003).

Improved technologies alone cannot do the entire job of sustainable agricultural development. A combination of improved incentives and policies, reinvigorated institutions, and increased investments must occur in CWANA if agriculture is to develop and the benefits are to be spread widely (USAID, 2005). The potential value of modern science to agriculture and the environment in CWANA countries will not be realized without major additional efforts involving all stakeholders, including civil society, producers, consumers and governments (Serageldin and Persley, 2000).