could help limit the gender division of labor. Historically, men in CWANA have been assigned the use of machines, leaving the manual and time-consuming jobs to women and children (Rassam and Tully, 1988). A gender-sensitive AKST development will also expand the range of crops on which to focus, by including subsistence crops and local varieties as well as cash crops. It will take into consideration all phases of agronomic management plus postharvest duties and related domestic activities that are often neglected. By integrating local and gender-differentiated understanding of seeds and the cultural values connected to food preservation, preparation and storage, AKST could enhance the success of technological adoption and eventually be more effective in enhancing rural livelihoods. This is particularly important in the case of ethnic minorities, who connect dietary habits and the preservation of landraces to their culture.

A gender-sensitive approach to agriculture development is particularly important in areas characterized by feminization of agriculture. In countries like Syria male farmers often migrate to urban areas in search of work, and women are in charge of the agricultural work (Abdelali-Martini et al., 2003). Nonetheless, women are not considered farmers, and policy makers and development planners overlook their needs and preferences, negatively affecting agricultural production, women’s daily labor and rural livelihoods. Furthermore, laws and policies rarely adapt to these changing circumstances. Entitlement and access to land, water and seeds rest with absent husbands or fathers, upon whom women must depend to get access to the basic means for their daily work. Control over key economic resources can determine intrahousehold distribution of benefits from increased agricultural productivity (Tipilda et al., 2005). Also, labor laws rarely protect the rights of women farmers or those of the informal workers, whose number is constantly growing in the agricultural sector of CWANA. Policies should be formulated that reflect the changes in social composition of rural areas and deal with emerging issues. Moreover, policies aimed to build the capacities of the rural population can help diversify the sources of household income, thereby decreasing their vulnerability. This is particularly important in light of the agricultural sector being increasingly marginalized.

Technology. Literacy rates in the CWANA region have recently risen. However, the gender gap in education is still wide. According to the Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA), in 2002 almost half of the female population in the Arab countries was illiterate (ESCWA, 2005). Policies should be pursued that support women’s school attendance and completion, and training in fields that are usually male dominated. This is particularly important in rural and agricultural areas where access to education is limited by poor infrastructure. Cultural norms disfavor female education; poverty causes high school dropouts because children are needed to help provide income for the household. Many girls abandon school after puberty because both the trip to school and the lack of proper toilet facilities in the buildings jeopardize their modesty and honor. Safe means of transport to reach the school and proper facilities could improve their attendance. Finally, the quality of education could be improved by removing stereotypical gender images in school texts. By training students in the

latest agricultural technologies or other skills the labor market requires, education could become a path in the rural areas towards better employment.

Technologies can be developed and applied to meet the needs of women in particular. For example, biofortification and foods enriched to supply the nutrients that women in CWANA tend to be deficient in, such as calcium, iron and zinc, should be considered (Gender Advisory Board, 2004). Currently in several CWANA countries, technologies suitable for women farmers are lacking, particularly labor- and energy-saving farm and household technologies. This lack of suitable technology impairs women’s productivity (Kasnakoglu, 1997). Agricultural technology developed with close attention to alleviating some of the labor constraints experienced by rural women potentially can improve not only the well-being of the woman farmer but also of others in her household who are dependent on her care (World Bank, undated). Alleviating the labor burdens of rural women is an important dimension in empowering them. Technology targeted at men and implemented with men’s goals and situations in mind may put women at a disadvantage by leading to an increase in the amount of labor they must expend to attain the same level of production (Gender Advisory Board, 2004).

There are no easy answers to the question of what kind of technology will promote the autonomy of women in rural societies of CWANA. These women may indirectly— but drastically—be affected by technological innovations. Technologies, as seen in many instances during the Green Revolution, may displace women and actually decrease their income (Gender Advisory Board, 2004). Such biotechnologies carry the risk of increasing the burden on women as providers for their families: increasing competition and lowering world market prices as a consequence of applying modern technologies could lead to the migration of men from rural areas. Such migration will cause an increase in the heavy burden that women must carry alone, and consequently lead to their impoverishment (Pingali and Rajaram, 1998). If the present global power structure and the current bias towards males in agricultural research, extension and development policies persist, modern agricultural technologies will most likely further widen the gap between men and women, and between rich and poor. Public research also generally bypasses women and their needs. However, since women rapidly take up technologies that improve efficiency, researchers assume they will adopt practices such as modern biotechnology (Zweifel, 1995). If women’s situations, concerns, technological skills, use of technologies and knowledge continue to be overlooked, women will be displaced and marginalized by technology development, with many of their activities becoming sidelined or taken over by men. This will have resulting implications for the health and wellbeing of women and children, environmental sustainability, and income levels in developing countries (Gender Advisory Board, 2004).

The need is urgent in both research and priority setting to ensure that women will be in a position to benefit from modern agricultural technologies, rather than being disadvantaged as has often occurred in the past (Gender Advisory Board, 2004). Women’s participation both before and during the introduction of new technology is of central importance. Their participation should go beyond consultation,