and animals, the emergence or re-emergence of these pests is considered to be linked with several concurrent factors among which are (Anderson et al., 2004):
•     Increased global travel and global trade of plant materi­als, including crop plants but also exotic species used as garden or ornamental plants (Mack and Erneberg, 2002); this trade results in increased risks of dispers­ing pests onto new hosts and/or into new geographical areas;
•     Climatic modifications such as global warming that have already resulted in the extension of the range of some insects, including vectors of pathogens; although currently limited, this effect is predicted to see its impor­tance increase during the forthcoming century;
•     Modification of farming practices, with a strong trend towards a reduced diversity of crops and an increased contribution of monoculture;
•     Increased occurrence of resistance to pesticides in both insects, weeds and pathogens, further reducing our abil­ity to control these pests and resulting, in some situa­tions, in the build-up of large, difficult to control pest populations; and
•     Evolution of the pests themselves, expanding host range of weeds, insects and pathogens and increasing occur­rence of feral, weedy forms of many crops.

AKST could be developed and used to understand the root causes of these new and emerging pests to shift focus to pre­empting new pest emergence, rather than just responding to it. Some of the main options for action in this domain are listed below:
     Better understand the origin of and the factors respon­sible for the invasiveness of insect pests, weeds and patho­gens of plants
•     Study the factors that determine the invasive potential of these pests:
-     Genetic factors, including genetic makeup, gene ex­pression and its influence on the adaptation of these new pests to the new environment;
-     Ecological factors, including the conditions that could either inhibit or stimulate the invasive poten­tial of new pests.
•     Understand how these new pests alter ecological com­munity structure, which in turn can facilitate the devel­opment and propagation of these pathogens;
•     Study  weed   ecology,  to   allow  maximum   biodiver­sity with minimum impact on productivity and crop health;
•     Conduct retrospective studies on biotic invasions to bet­ter understand the factors that stimulated the invasive potential; and
•     Increase international collaboration to facilitate the ex­change of biological and ecological information associ­ated with insect pests, weeds and pathogens with high invasive risk potential.

Build surveillance and detection networks
•     Track the changing geographic distribution of poten­tially dangerous invasive pests with associated ecologi­cal data;
•     Develop improved techniques/models/strategies/frame-

works for Pest Risk Analysis i.e., the capability to pre­dict the potential risk(s) linked to the introduction of pests into region(s) where it is absent; such strategic analyses could help to focus some monitoring efforts on "high risk" agents and to de-emphasize efforts on "low-risk" agents that have nevertheless made their way to quarantine lists;
•     Implement surveillance and efficient alert systems:
-     Develop internet databases with taxonomical and biological data on these pests and pathogens and store samples with their respective data at the re­gional or national level; this calls for more research in taxonomy of pests and pathogens;
-     Train field workers (agricultural cooperatives, en­tomologists, naturalists, etc.) to detect the presence of pests and pathogens rapidly and not only alert the other actors involved but also to contribute and supply data to regional and national databases; and
-     Develop new molecular detection tools (e.g., gene chips) that could in certain cases be used in situ directly on the fields for cost-effective detection of potentially invasive species and rapid assessment of both qualitative (presence or absence) and quantita­tive (number) changes observed in affected biologi­cal communities.
Developing    appropriate    management    and    regulatory measures
•     Develop a database with control methods for these pests, preferably based on sustainable, ecological pest management methods coupled to surveillance and de­tection networks;
•     Build systems for effective border control to deal with risks from pests and disease-causing pathogens;
•     Develop adaptive management systems to be able to ad­just rapidly management and regulatory measures;
•     Develop newer and safer pesticides as well as breed pest-resistant crops; and
•     Develop new biological control agents to suppress pests and replace chemical controls and tillage.

6.2.3 Contributing to a global strategy for a low carbon economy

6.2.3.1  Biofuels
The heavy dependence of the NAE during past century on petroleum is a major challenge. AKST can be deployed to develop agricultural production of biofuels while decreasing net carbon dioxide output.
     Some of the sources that could be used for producing bio­fuels are: cereal grains and oilseeds to produce bioethanol15 and biodiesel16 (1st generation biofuels), cellulosic materials (2nd generation biofuels) and, algae and cyanobacteria (3rd
15 The complex carbohydrates in plant material are hydrolyzed to simple sugars that are fermented into ethanol or butanol, which can be used in internal combustion engines.

16 Crop oils are increasingly being used for use as biodiesel. The crop oil is de-esterified to release the fatty acids for use as biodiesel, and glycerin is a byproduct.