and by changing from urea to ammonium sulfate fertilizer, which impedes CH4 production (DeAngelo et al., 2005; Li et al., 2006). There is also potential to achieve CH4 reduction through integrating new insights of how the rice plant regu­lates CH4 production and transport into rice breeding pro­grams (Wassmann and Aulakh, 2000; Kerchoechuen, 2005).
        Emerging technologies that could provide future op­tions for reducing CH4 and N2O emissions from livestock include: adding probiotics, yeasts, nitrification inhibitors, and edible oils to animal feed that reduce enteric CH4 and N2O emissions from livestock systems (Smith et al., 2007) and   controlling   methanogenic   archae,   microorganisms that live in the rumen and generate CH4 during their me­tabolism More extensive use of the antibiotic Rumensin® (monensin  sodium),  currently  used to  improve  feed effi­ciency and prevent Coccidiosis, a parasitic intestinal infec­tion, would improve energy utilization of feedstuffs through increased production of proprionic acid by rumen microor­ganisms and reduce the production of CH4. However, because Rumensin is also toxic to methanogenic bacteria, it should not be fed to cattle whose waste is to be used for CH4 generation.

Seeds. A viable option for small-scale production systems would be to refine and more widely disseminate the prac­tice of adding small quantities of fertilizer to seed, such as through seed coating (Rebafka et al., 1993) or soaking/ priming (Harris, 2006) methods. Addition of fertilizer P and micronutrients to seed, rather than soil, is an inexpen­sive but highly effective means for improving plant nutrition and increasing yield (> 30% average yield increase reported) on drought-prone, acidic, low fertility soils. Seed priming with dilute fertilizer has average benefit/cost ratios 20 to 40 times greater than that achieved with fertilizer addition to the soil.
         This is could be an effective strategy for small-scale systems, though there are several impediments such as low availability of quality fertilizer in local markets, lack of ex­tension services for conveying technical information, and in­ability of farmer to pay for fertilizer-treated seed. Imbedding these technologies within larger efforts to overhaul the seed sector, which could include credit for purchasing improved seed and information about improved crop establishment practices could facilitate farmer adoption of these technolo­gies. These technologies also could be disseminated into lo­cal communities by targeting farmers that have made prior land improvements to increase soil water retention, and may therefore be less risk adverse.

Water resources and fisheries. While the broad implications of climate change on marine systems are known—including rising sea levels, sea surface temperatures, and acidifica­tion—the degree and rate of change is not known, nor are the effects of these physical changes on ecosystem function and productivity (Behrenfeld et al., 2006). To adjust and cope with future climatic changes, a better understand­ing of how to predict the extent of change, apply adaptive management, and assign risk for management decisions is needed (Schneider, 2006).
         To ensure the survival of many communities, their live­lihoods and global food security, new approaches to moni­toring, predicting, and adaptively responding to changes in

marine and terrestrial ecosystems need to be developed. Eco­system resilience can be built into fisheries and essential fish habitats (including wetlands and estuaries) and approaches developed that reduce risk and ensure continuation of eco­system goods and services (Philippart et al., 2007). Rising sea levels will alter coastal habitats and their future pro­ductivity, threatening some of the most productive fishing areas in the world. Changes in ocean temperatures will alter ocean currents and the distribution and ranges of marine animals, including fish populations (di Prisco and Verde, 2006; Lunde et al., 2006; Sabates et al., 2006; Clarke et al., 2007). Rising sea surface temperatures will result in ad­ditional coral reef bleaching and mortality (Donner et al., 2005). Rising atmospheric CO2 will lead to acidification of ocean waters and disrupt the ability of animals (such as corals, mollusks, plankton) to secrete calcareous skeletons, thus reducing their role in critical ecosystems and food webs (Royal Society, 2005).
          Precautionary approaches to management of fish and freshwater resources are needed to reduce the impacts from climate change, including conserving riparian and coastal wetlands that can buffer changes in sea level rise and fresh­water flows. Human-induced pressures on fish populations from overfishing must be reduced so that fish populations have a chance of withstanding the additional pressures from warming seas and changes in seasonal current patterns. Hu­man demand for increasing freshwater supplies needs to be addressed through water conservation and water reuse, thus allowing environmental flows to maintain riparian and wet­land ecosystems.
         Small-scale fishers, who lack mobility and livelihood al­ternatives and are often the most dependent on specific fish­eries, will suffer disproportionately from such large-scale climatic changes. In Asia, 1 billion people are estimated to be dependent upon coral reef fisheries as a major source of protein, yet coral reef ecosystems are among the most threatened by global climate change. The combined effects of sea surface temperature rise and oceanic acidification could mean that corals will begin to disappear from tropi­cal reefs in just 50 years; poor, rural coastal communities in developing countries are at the greatest risk and will suffer the greatest consequences (Donner and Potere, 2007; www. icsf.net). Climate change is a major threat to critical coastal ecosystems such as the Nile, the Niger and other low-lying deltas, as well as oceanic islands which may be inundated by rising sea levels. The environmental and socioeconomic costs,  especially to  fisheries  communities  in  developing countries, could be enormous.
          Water related risk can be reduced through adaptation and adoption of strategies to improve water productivity in rainfed farming systems. These strategies entail shifting from passive to active water management in rainfed farming systems and include water harvesting systems for supple­mental irrigation, small scale off-season irrigation combined with improved cropping system management, including use of water harvesting, minimum tillage and mulch systems, im­proved crop varieties, improved cropping patterns (Molden et al., 2007), and particularly mitigation of soil degradation (Bossio et al., 2007). These existing technologies allow active management of rainfall (green water), rather than only man­aging river flows (blue water) (Rockstrom et al., 2007).