ing internal stability rather than relying on external control measures. It aims to recycle nutrients, conserve energy, soil and water and to preserve biodiversity.
     Developing good soil structure, biological activity and fertility is central to organic farming, because they are crucial to good plant health, which is important in resisting pests and diseases. For example, comparison of soil under organic management and conventional management in kiwi fruit or­chards in New Zealand revealed that organic orchard soils had higher pH, higher soil cation exchange, more calcium and magnesium, more potentially mineralizable nitrogen and biomass carbon, greater size and activity of the mi-crobial population and greater earthworm populations, al­though it had lower phosphate (Pearson et al., 2005). Some of the known organic cropping techniques include:
•   Selecting crops and varieties that best suit the climate and agroecological system and have disease resistance or tolerance
•   Rotating crops, including fallowing and herbal leys
•   Intercropping and using undercrops, including mulch­ing and animal grazing, for controlling weeds and pre­serving the habitat for beneficial insects
•   Using solarization
•   Applying animal and green manure, especially legumes, turning in crop residues, composting and using effective microorganisms
•   If necessary,   using   approved  mineral-bearing  rocks and foliar fertilizers to help return nutrients in organic matter
•   Using biopesticides like neem and parasitic insects for managing biological pests
•   Using mechanical barriers

FAO warned that comparing yields between organic and conventional systems were meaningful only over time be­cause high yields in conventional farming are often based on "exploitative systems that degrade land, water, biodiversity and ecological services on which food production depends" (FAO, 2002). Conversion to organics from high-yielding conventional systems often results in a drop in gross yield of the marketable commodity; the degree of drop might vary considerably. Conversion from low-input, often traditional systems could raise productivity by optimizing the use of lo­cal resources (FAO, 2002; IFAD, 2002). Additionally, con­version to organics in medium-potential areas in the tropics could show good performance (FAO, 2002).

2.2.7.2   Organic livestock In organic agricultural systems, similar to traditional ap­proaches  to   agriculture,   animals   are  incorporated  into mixed animal agriculture and cropping, often with the ad­dition of agroforestry. At the other end of the spectrum are large single-animal enterprises, such as the dairy industry in New Zealand. To the unpracticed eye, these would look like conventional farms. The difference lies largely in the organic management of pasture, manure disposal, inputs permitted and practices that allow animals to express their innate be­havior. Organic animal agriculture practices include:
•   managing the soil based on appropriate stocking rates and sympathetic grazing regimes to minimize damage to soil structure and compaction

•   providing good-quality drinking water
•   providing organically grown feed
•   giving all animals conditions that allow them to per­form all aspects of their innate behavior, including free access to graze and range on a wide variety of pasture and browsing species
•   using natural health remedies as much as possible, with resort to synthetic veterinary medicines as a last option to prevent suffering

Intensive raising of animals on feedlots and battery cage confinement of hens are definitely not organic agricultural practices.

2.2.7.3   Organic aquaculture Organic aquaculture has lagged behind the development of other organic agriculture. Organic aquaculture can take place in fresh water, brackish water and the sea to produce fish, crustaceans, mollusks and plants. New Zealand has been one of the largest producers outside Europe, with one salmon farm producing 500 to 800 t of organic salmon. Other organic aquaculture in the region includes shrimp in Indonesia, Thailand and Viet Nam; mussels in New Zea­land; and salmon in Australia. One constraint has been sourcing acceptable nutrients for the farmed species (FAO, 2002).
     Conventional shrimp farming in Southeast Asia has caused a great deal of concern about its negative social and environmental effects. The challenge for organic aquacul­ture has been to provide much-needed protein-rich food without damaging the environment. Food for the farmed species needs to come from sustainably managed fisheries. It should come from local fishery products not suitable for direct human consumption, free from synthetic additives and contaminants and be fed only to aquatic species with naturally piscivorous  feeding habits  (FAO, 2002).  FAO concluded that with the "introduction of appropriate water and nutrient management techniques, the prospect for the increased production of farmed organic aquatic plants and mollusks is considerable" (FAO, 2002).

2.3      Trends in AKST: Organization and Institutions

2.3.1      Organizations and institutions that helped shape AKST in ESAP
Agricultural development often depends upon the actions of a large number of different actors and organizations, in­cluding those involved in agricultural production and mar­keting, as well as those concerned with research and devel­opment, training, extension and public policy.

2.3.1.1   Composition of different AKST organizations in ESAP and their institutional behavior
Knowing the different AKST actors and how they behave is important for understanding how these actors and institu­tions interact with each other in response to challenges and opportunities. This is especially vital as the nature of farm­ing in this region and elsewhere constantly changes under the backdrop of a fast-paced knowledge economy. Plateau-ing crop yields, compounded by declining water and land