the quality of research staff has improved considerably over the last years.

In Jordan, nearly 61% of the 245 full-time researchers had postgraduate training and more than a third held a doctorate degree while in Morocco (ASTI, 2005) and in Tunisia (ASTI, 2006a) the number was over 90%. In contrast, only 25% of the agricultural researchers in Syria held master of science and doctorate degrees (ASTI, 2006b).

Despite a rise in the number of women pursuing scientific careers worldwide, female researchers are still underrepresented in senior scientific positions. In 2003, less than 13% of the researchers in Jordan were female. This is low compared with other countries, such as Morocco (18%), Syria (23%) and Tunisia (28%). In Jordan, women represented 5% of researchers with a doctorate degree, 17% with a master's and 19% with a bachelor's. In Syria, 23% of all researchers employed in public institutions in 2003 were female, including 5% holding a doctorate degree, 36% with a master's degree and 26% with a bachelor's (Table 2-14).

In Sudan, 79% of the 591 researchers had postgraduate training and one-third held a doctorate degree. In 2000, nearly 28% of full-time researchers were female, including 17% holding a doctorate degree and 26% with a master's degree.

In 2002, approximately 91% of the 362 researchers in Tunisia had done postgraduate work and 70% held doctorates. By comparison, 34% of agricultural researchers in Morocco held doctorates in 2002. Tunisia's particularly high PhD share is partly because the minimum qualification required for researchers in Tunisia's higher-education institutions is a master's in science (ASTI, 2006a). On average,

28% of all agricultural researchers were female. This is considerably higher than the 18% for Morocco in 2002. Both the share of female researchers overall and of those holding doctorate degrees are expected to rise in the near future. Over 50% of currently enrolled students of agriculture are female and many are finishing PhD degrees (ASTI, 2005).

2.3.4 Research intensity in public agricultural research and development

Total agricultural R&D spending as a percentage of agricultural output (Ag GDP), defined as research intensity, is commonly used to compare research investments across countries (Table 2-15). Jordan, for example, invested US$2.83 for every US$100 of agricultural output in 2003, which was a substantial increase over the 1996 ratio of US$1.61 (ASTI, 2006c). The 2003 ratio was also considerably higher than the average for CWANA, 0.66%, and for the industrialized world as a whole, 2.36%. The high ratio of research intensity in Jordan does not reflect high research investment in agriculture; rather it indicates agriculture's small share of the country's gross domestic product (GDP).

Syria invested US$0.53 in agricultural research for every US$100 of agricultural output in 2003. This was similar to the reported 2000 average for the developing world, but was lower than the average for CWANA, US$0.66. In 2000, Sudan invested US$0.17 for every US$100 of agricultural output. Sudan's research intensity declined, considerably lowering its ranking among other countries in the region. The 2000 intensity ratio was less than half of that in 1981