production farming systems integrate natural resources and regulation mechanisms into farming activities to achieve maximum replacement of off-farm inputs and to secure sustainable production of high-quality food and other products through ecologically preferred and safe technologies. ICM focuses eliminating or reducing sources of present environmental pollution generated by agriculture and sustaining the multiple functions of agriculture while sustaining farm income (EU, 2002); therefore, research for and promotion of ICM systems may be of particular importance in CWANA countries where AKST is focusing on increasing productivity by intensifying production. Although yields currently tend
to be a little lower in ICM as compared with conventional systems, a recent study (EU, 2002) suggests that, even in the highly productive agricultural systems in the European Union, it is possible to achieve similar levels of profitability using ICM techniques because lower revenues are balanced by reductions in production costs. Opportunities to achieve comparable or even increased profitability in less productive systems of CWANA are therefore considerable.

Integrated pest management (IPM) forms part of ICM and can be described as an effective and environmentally sensitive approach to pest management that relies on a combination of commonsense practices. Emphasis of IPM is on control, not eradication. The approach thus aims at keeping pests at acceptable levels (identified thresholds) by applying preventive cultural practices, identifying and monitoring pests, and applying mechanical, biological and (as a last resort) chemical controls when required. Since IPM programs use comprehensive information on the life cycles of pests and their interaction with the environment, research might be required to better adapt IPM strategies to CWANA conditions. This information, in combination with available pest control methods, is used to manage pest damage by the most economical means (which is particularly important for resource-poor CWANA farmers), and with the least possible hazard to people, property and the environment (USEPA, 2007). Although IPM’s main focus is usually insect pests, IPM approaches may encompass diseases, weeds and any other naturally occurring biological crop threat.

Whereas ICM strategies still allow the use of agrochemicals, organic agriculture describes production systems that rely on ecosystem management rather than external agricultural inputs. Since organic agriculture renounces the use of synthetic inputs such as synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, veterinary drugs, genetically modified seeds and breeds, preservatives, additives and irradiation, it offers a production pathway that may be particularly attractive for resource-poor farmers in CWANA. In many developing countries, organic agriculture is adopted as a method to improve household food security or to achieve a reduction of input costs. Produce is not necessarily sold on the market or may be sold without a price distinction as it is not certified. Demand for organic products, however, is increasing not only in industrialized countries but—with increasing living standards—also in and around the CWANA region. Market opportunities for organic products are thus on the rise, both in view of exports and to satisfy inland demand; typically, organic exports are sold 20-25% higher than identical products produced on non-organic farms (Abou-Hadid et al., 2004). Vertical integration of market chains has proven

to greatly benefit organic producers; small farmers may develop direct channels to deliver uncertified organic produce to consumers or organize themselves to have increased marketing strength in national and international markets.

Evidence is increasing that the transition to more ecological production practices does not compromise food security (IFOAM, 2007). Where external inputs have been high, yield reductions may occur during and after transition to organic farming, but organic agriculture may substantially increase yields in low-input areas (Pretty et al., 2006). In traditional rainfed systems, widespread in CWANA, organic agriculture has been demonstrated to outperform conventional agricultural systems under environmental stress conditions (FAO, 2007). Organic production additionally contributes to conserving biodiversity and natural resources, it may increase income or reduce costs, it produces safe and varied food, and it is sustainable in the long term. Therefore, organic agriculture should be an integral part of any agricultural policy aiming for food security and improved livelihoods (IFOAM, 2007). Organic farmers usually grow a variety of crops and rear livestock; this increases resilience of organic systems and may reduce production as well as market risks.

Whereas the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) within organic systems is not permitted during any stage of organic food production, processing or handling, modern biotechnology, if appropriately developed, could offer new and broad potential for contributing to food security. Biotechnologies developed over the last 30 to 40 years— such as tissue cultures, cell isolation, molecular diagnostics, marker-assisted selection and genetic engineering—are powerful instruments that can be used for different purposes. Most of these technologies are not controversial and can be used safely to increase food security. Since infrastructure requirements for certain technologies are not overly demanding, some of these technologies may well experience further development in the CWANA region.

An important subset of modern biotechnologies is genetic engineering, or the manipulation of an organism’s genetic endowment by introducing, rearranging or eliminating specific genes through modern molecular biology techniques. Certain proponents of the GMO community are anticipating a second potential agricultural revolution, the Gene Revolution, in which modern biotechnology enables production of genetically modified crops that may be tailored to address ongoing agricultural problems in specific regions of the world, like developing high-yielding varieties tolerant to salinity and drought, pest and disease resistant. Although the genetically modified crop movement may have the potential to do enormous good, it also presents novel risks and has significant obstacles to overcome before it can truly be considered revolutionary. Evidence so far suggests that the technology has the potential to affect a wide range of plant and animal products and could have many consequences that extend beyond food production in agriculture (FAO, 2001).

Since biotechnology may facilitate increasing agricultural productivity, CWANA AKST should expand research and development efforts related to socially useful and environmentally friendly biotechnologies, including as appropriate the possible development of certain GMOs. However,