fore, need to adopt more holistic approaches that are compatible with policy reform, technical guidelines and support systems to address rehabilitation and restoration through forest management and planted forest development. In many of these countries, the current rate of industrial development of planted forests barely keeps pace with losses from deforestation and the transfer of natural forests to protected status. It is possible not only to sustain but also to increase productivity in successive rotations of planted forests. This requires a clear definition of sound management of planted forests and their end use. It is necessary to integrate strategies for appropriate silviculture, tree improvement programs and nursery practices, matching species and provenance to sites, and to forest protection and harvesting practices.

AKST may address forestry priorities in the CWANA region that should include forest resources management, rehabilitation and restoration of degraded lands, development of forest lands and access to information technology and networks on forestry, and inclusion of forestry and forestryrelated issues (IPGRI, 2001). Expanding forests and increasing their productivity may be achieved by using appropriate species, protecting forests from grazing, zoning, water harvesting and using unconventional water resources such as brackish water and treated wastewater for supplementary irrigation of forests in dry areas or seasons.

Agroforestry. Agroforestry systems are generally less widespread in dry areas than in humid environments in the tropics. This is mainly due to the role that competition between crops and trees plays, which is more important in dry than in humid areas. This competition requires cautious reflection on whether and how woody species may be combined with crops and livestock (see Kessler and Breman, 1991; Breman and Kessler, 1995). But agroforestry may provide extremely important products and services in dry areas (Table 5-1).

It is important to keep in mind that the drylands environment is quite different from environments where many well-known agroforestry practices such as alley cropping have developed. Innovative thinking is required to develop new approaches for using woody perennials together with crops and livestock, and certainly for adapting known technologies to the specific conditions. A participatory approach considering the needs and perceptions of all involved stakeholders is indispensable. Innovation, adaptation and participation will have to receive high priority in AKST with regard to agroforestry in CWANA.

5.2.1.5 Mechanization and labor organization in agricultural production

Adequate, locally adapted mechanization may substantially increase agricultural productivity, particularly in the case of field crops. Furthermore, a certain degree of mechanization may greatly support approaches and technologies to use scarce water resources more efficiently. Conservation agriculture practices such as conservation tillage, which help conserve soil productivity and biodiversity, often require some degree of mechanization. Conservation agriculture technologies will probably become more important in the future since they play an important role in adapting to climatic change and they substantially reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, increasing labor constraints,

particularly due to the increasing opportunity costs of labor, insufficient remuneration for agricultural work and the feminization of agriculture, further drive the need for mechanization.

However, mechanization has to be adapted to the specific agroecological and socioeconomic conditions of the farm enterprises. Since production systems and resource availability for farmers in CWANA differ greatly, strategies to improve mechanization must be specifically targeted. Whereas in certain areas, such as those that are resource poor or mountainous, improved crop–livestock integration may allow for simple mechanization through draft power, high-tech mechanization may be adequate in other parts of CWANA. The special case of Central Asia, where the degree of mechanization has considerably decreased since the collapse of the Soviet Union, clearly illustrates this need for specific approaches and strategies. Thus careful consideration of the specific conditions and cost-benefit analyses are necessary to choose adequate mechanization levels. Furthermore, changes in traditions or legal framework conditions may be required to introduce mechanization. For instance, land fragmentation limits increase in productivity through mechanization, and access to reasonably functioning credit and saving systems may be required for farmers to invest in the necessary equipment.

Future AKST relating to mechanization will have to consider changes in labor organization to a greater extent. Hitherto achievements in mechanization have generally unilaterally favored male workers; future efforts will have to focus much more on facilitating and easing the labor-intensive and tedious work of women and children. Awareness building and advocacy will be required to alter social preconceptions that associate machinery use with men and thus further limit women’s use of technological improvements. This is particularly important in view of the increasing feminization of agriculture in many parts of the CWANA region, and it must allow for adequate and gender-balanced schooling and education.

5.2.1.6 Alternatives to conventional farming

Production of safe food remains a worldwide health concern. Agricultural chemicals like fertilizers, pesticides and fungicides are a prime food safety concern today. Jones et al. (2006) reports an increased risk of contamination with harmful microorganisms through irrigation water, spraying, cleaning, etc.

Such concerns have led to an increasing interest in developing and adopting alternative agricultural approaches to reduce the use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers. Integrated crop management—which includes integrated pest management—is an option to be considered in CWANA in the future, as is organic farming. Due to changes in consumer habits and perceptions, markets for sustainably produced and organically grown merchandise are growing, and they may represent an opportunity for quite a number of farmers in the CWANA region.

Integrated crop management (ICM) may be seen as a commonsense approach to farming. It combines the best of traditional methods with appropriate modern technology, balancing the economic production of crops with positive environmental management (BASIS/LEAF, 2004). Integrated